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Most people who drink alcohol will be familiar with the short-term effects of alcohol intoxication. The mild state of euphoria and feelings of relaxation are among the main reasons why humans have been producing and drinking alcohol for thousands of years, according to “Alcohol: Science, Policy and Public Health” (Oxford University Press, 2013). 

Similarly, most people are aware that excessive and chronic drinking can severely impact their physical and mental health. But the exact effects will depend on the amount of alcohol consumed and how frequently someone drinks it.

In the U.S., moderate drinking is limited to two drinks per day for men and one drink per day for women, according to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (opens in new tab) (CDC). One drink refers to an equivalent of 0.6 ounce (14 grams) of pure alcohol. That amount can be found in a bottle of beer (5% alcohol content), a small glass of wine (12% alcohol content) or a shot of distilled spirits (40% alcohol content).      

According to the CDC (opens in new tab) , heavy drinking is defined as consuming eight or more drinks per week for women, and 15 or more drinks per week for a man. This is different to binge drinking, which the CDC defines as consuming five or more drinks on one occasion for men or four or more drinks on one occasion for women.What are the short-term effects of alcohol?

Short-term effects of alcohol consumption often include feelings of mild euphoria and a state of relaxation. This state is caused by temporary changes to brain signaling, said Sarah Boss (opens in new tab) , a psychiatrist in Spain and clinical director of The Balance Luxury Rehab, who specializes in addiction. 

“Alcohol can interfere with neurotransmitters, which are chemicals that help relay messages between neurons in the brain, leading to changes in mood, behavior and thinking,” she told Live Science.

According to the American Addiction Centers (opens in new tab) , short-term effects of moderate alcohol consumption may range from skin flushing and trouble concentrating to more severe symptoms, such as vomiting and passing out. Other effects of short-term alcohol use include loss of coordination, mood swings, raised blood pressure, dull vision and lowered inhibitions. 

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Then comes the effects of alcohol withdrawal, commonly referred to as a hangover. Hangover symptoms usually begin within several hours of a person’s last drink and they tend to vary from person to person. These can include headaches, exhaustion, nausea and dehydration, said Dr. Kathryn Basford (opens in new tab) , a medical doctor at ZAVA online doctor service in England. 

“Alcohol inhibits the body’s production of vasopressin, a hormone which tells the body to retain water in the kidneys,” Basford (opens in new tab) told Live Science. “Without this, water goes directly to the bladder and leaves the body dehydrated. The headache is the brain’s reaction to this loss of fluid, while the nausea and lack of energy is the body’s response to low blood sugar levels and the loss of the minerals and electrolytes which help the body to function properly.”

The more a person drinks, Basford said, the more likely it is that they are going to feel these effects, and the longer a person might take to recover. Related: What is ‘hangxiety’ and why do some people experience it? 

Hangover symptoms tend to pass within 24 hours of a person’s last drink and do not tend to produce lasting health problems.What are the long-term effects of alcohol consumption?

Long-term alcohol consumption can affect many aspects of physical and mental health. According to the American Addiction Centers (opens in new tab) , the main areas affected include the brain, digestive system, cardiovascular system and musculoskeletal system.    

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According to Boss, there’s a lot of  scientific evidence to show that alcohol impacts the proper functioning of the brain, namely by affecting levels of neurotransmitters — chemical messengers in the brain. ALCOHOL GUIDANCE AND SUPPORT—Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration

—Secular Organizations for Sobriety 

—Moderation Management 

“You may notice alcohol can cause wild mood swings,” she said. “This is because alcohol interacts with GABA, a neurotransmitter that helps to regulate mood and anxiety.” 

Alcohol also works as a central nervous system depressant, Boss said, which means it slows down the communication between the brain and the body. This can lead to impaired coordination, slurred speech, slowed reflexes and blackouts. Heavy drinking can also lead to other problems such as sleep disturbances.

Long-term alcohol use may even lead to changes in the brain’s structure. “Heavy drinking can kill brain cells,” Boss said. “This damage can lead to problems with memory, learning and coordination, as well as increases in anxiety [disorder] and depression.” 

Many of these changes in the brain happen on a molecular level. According to a 2021 review published in the journal Trends in Neurosciences (opens in new tab) , excessive drinking can disrupt gene expression in neurons, a process in which brain cells develop and connect with each other. These adaptations may be a key factor for developing alcohol use disorder, the researchers said.Heart 

Long-term alcohol use will also have an impact on cardiovascular health. According to a 2016 review published in the Journal of the American College of Cardiology (opens in new tab) , even modest amounts of alcohol may predispose someone to atrial fibrillation — a condition that causes an irregular heartbeat, dizziness and shortness of breath. 

How drinking affects heart health may depend on the amount of alcohol consumed, though the evidence is far from conclusive. Some studies indicate that low-to-moderate drinking may actually lower your risk of heart disease and stroke, according to a 2021 review published in the journal Nutrients (opens in new tab) . However, this is not well understood. A 2017 review published in the journal Alcohol Research (opens in new tab) suggests that low-to-moderate alcohol consumption may indirectly reduce atherosclerosis — a buildup of fatty plaques in and on the artery walls — and inflammation, as well as mitigate the effects of psychological stress on the cardiovascular system. 

Certain compounds found in alcoholic drinks could also play a role. For example, polyphenols found in red wine may protect against atherosclerosis, hypertension and heart failure, a 2016 review published in the journal Nutrients (opens in new tab) reported. Digestive health 

Excessive drinking can lead to liver damage and alcohol-related liver disease, according to a 2021 review published in the journal Alcohol Research (opens in new tab) . 

Alcohol affects other parts of the digestive system too. A 2014 review in the World Journal of Gastroenterology (opens in new tab) found that consuming more than five drinks a day can damage the pancreas, esophagus, stomach and intestinal tract. 

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Long-term alcohol consumption may also lead to poor gut health. According to a 2021 review published in the International Journal of Molecular Sciences (opens in new tab) , excessive drinking may lead to changes in the gut microbiome,  by reducing diversity of microbes and causing an overgrowth of bacteria that promote inflammation, such as Proteobacteria. These alterations may lead to intestinal inflammation and leaky gut — a condition in which the intestinal walls become porous, enabling toxins and harmful pathogens to enter the bloodstream. 

Caitlin Hall, chief dietitian and head of clinical research at myota (opens in new tab) , said that these changes may be harmful to our general health. “One of the most important functions of the gut microbiome is to ferment dietary fibers and produce anti-inflammatory molecules called short chain fatty acids [SCFAs],” she told Live Science. “SCFAs are essential for our immune health, mental wellbeing and for reversing and preventing chronic diseases including diabetes and cancers. Cutting down on alcohol helps ensure that the microbiome can produce enough of these vital molecules.”  Immunity 

The immune system may also be affected by long-term alcohol use. According to a 2015 review published in the journal Alcohol Research (opens in new tab) , chronic heavy drinking may lead to a significant drop in the number of white blood cells responsible for combating infections and preventing cancers.  

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Olney: Yankees must replace Gerrit Cole — but they’ll probably have to wait

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Olney: Yankees must replace Gerrit Cole -- but they'll probably have to wait

Gerrit Cole‘s season is over, now that he is headed for Tommy John surgery, and the New York Yankees will have to find a way to replicate the production of a Cy Young Award-winning pitcher, someone who is likely to one day make a speech on induction day in Cooperstown.

But this is not a case of a team being blindsided by an injury. Past injuries are the most predictive indicators for future injuries, and after Cole missed nearly the first three months of last season with nerve inflammation in his right elbow, the Yankees knew the chances of losing him were heightened. Their handling of his contract situation last fall was a strong indicator of the uncertainty around Cole.

The pitcher and his agent, Scott Boras, opted out of the last four years of his contract, while asking that the Yankees exercise a $36 million option for the 2029 season, effectively adding a fifth year to his four-year, $144 million deal. Owner Hal Steinbrenner and GM Brian Cashman declined to do so, firmly holding the line, and days later, Cole returned to the Yankees without any augmentation of his contract. While the Yankees hoped Cole’s elbow would remain functional, as Masahiro Tanaka’s elbow did following a diagnosis of a partially torn ligament in 2014, they weren’t willing to bet another $36 million on it.

But that doesn’t help them very much right now, when they have lost two starting pitchers to significant arm injuries: Before Cole went down, Luis Gil — the American League Rookie of the Year last season — suffered a lat strain this spring that will keep him sidelined for much of the 2025 season. Max Fried, signed to a $218 million contract over the winter to improve a good rotation, will now be the de facto ace, in front of right-handers Clarke Schmidt and left-hander Carlos Rodon. A month ago, there was a lot of speculation about whether Marcus Stroman would be traded, given his standing as the sixth starter behind a five-man rotation, and now Stroman is needed as the No. 4 starter.

Cashman’s habit is to be patient — to weigh internal solutions before diving into another free agent signing or trade. When Cole was sidelined last spring, the Yankees thought Will Warren might step into his spot in the rotation, and instead, Gil surprisingly emerged to fill in for Cole and was one of the league’s best starting pitchers in the first half.

This year, Warren is having a very good spring, having allowed just two hits and a run in eight innings of work, with two walks and 11 strikeouts. Warren, an eighth-round pick out of Southeast Louisiana in 2021, is the front-runner to move into the Yankees’ rotation.

Just as the Yankees continue to weigh market options for hitting help while Giancarlo Stanton is attempting to work his way back from elbow trouble, they will consider free agent possibilities such as veteran right-hander Kyle Gibson. The Yankees paid for insurance on Cole’s contract, and so they will recoup some portion of the salary they owe him; typically, that rate is about 75%. His contract still counts against their competitive balance tax total, but the insurance money will significantly offset the luxury tax they will have to pay for the addition of any replacement: The Yankees are taxed dollar for dollar, 100%, for any additional player salaries they take on. A new $5 million player costs the Yankees $10 million.

Eventually, their best alternatives, if needed, could be through the trade market, and maybe that turns out to be the Miami MarlinsSandy Alcantara, the 2022 NL Cy Young Award winner who is back after an elbow reconstruction. Under the terms of a deal he signed with the Marlins early in his career, Alcantara is making $17.3 million this year and $17.3 million next season, and there is a $21 million option in his deal for 2027.

The Marlins are not expected to contend this year and have been in a cost-cutting mode since Peter Bendix took over the team’s baseball operations after the 2023 season. Last year, the Marlins demonstrated a willingness to deal very early in the season, when they swapped batting champion Luis Arraez to the San Diego Padres in the first week of May.

But the price of a trade in April or May is usually set by the team dealing away a star, and the Yankees would have to pay a big price in prospects in the spring after a rough year for their farm system, which is generally regarded as thin by other teams and ranked No. 21 in Kiley McDaniel’s preseason system rankings. Additionally, the Yankees would presumably compete against other teams if and when the Marlins look to trade Alcantara, leaving them at the same disadvantage they faced when trying to pry Garrett Crochet away from the Chicago White Sox — before Chicago dealt him to the Boston Red Sox.

Over the course of the summer, Gil could return from the injured list, and other pitchers could emerge on the trade market as some teams drift out of contention. If the Toronto Blue Jays struggle in the first half, they could be a key source for all kinds of needs, including starting pitchers. Jose Berrios, Kevin Gausman, Chris Bassitt and Max Scherzer might all draw interest if Toronto ever looks to rebuild and, in the Yankees’ case, is willing to deal within the division.

One or more National League West teams could end up feeding the trade market. The Padres enter this season with high expectations after nearly knocking out the Los Angeles Dodgers last summer, but if San Diego drifts behind in the playoff race, it holds two of the best impending free agents, Dylan Cease and former Yankee Michael King. Similarly, the San Francisco Giants have veteran Robbie Ray, who is under contract for $25 million this year and next, and the Arizona DiamondbacksZac Gallen will become eligible for free agency in the fall.

Likewise, in the AL West, the Mariners have so far clung to their starting pitchers, like Luis Castillo, but that could change if Seattle sinks in the standings. The Astros demonstrated their willingness to be aggressive with players nearing free agency with their trade of outfielder Kyle Tucker, and if Houston hovers around .500, it could flip Framber Valdez into the market — with his years of postseason experience attractive to contenders.

The pitching market could be flush with options in a few months. And the Yankees might wait until then to make a move to cover for Cole’s absence.

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Yankees ace Cole will have Tommy John surgery

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Yankees ace Cole will have Tommy John surgery

New York Yankees right-hander Gerrit Cole will undergo Tommy John surgery, the team announced Monday, ending his 2025 season before it began and leaving the club staggering from another blow as it prepares to defend its American League pennant.

The decision to have the surgery, which will sideline Cole for the 2025 season and at least part of the 2026 season, was made after seeking a second opinion from Dr. Neal ElAttrache on Monday. Cole will undergo the procedure Tuesday at the Cedars-Sinai Kerlan-Jobe Institute in Los Angeles. In a statement, the club said that “further updates will occur post surgery.”

Cole started two games this spring, giving up seven runs across six innings. On Thursday, he gave up six runs on five hits, including two home runs, over 2⅔ innings to the Minnesota Twins. He said he felt an “alarming” amount of pain that night into Friday morning, prompting him to notify the team and undergo imaging tests, which revealed a torn ulnar collateral ligament.

Cole, 34, went through the same series of stressful events a year ago: Elbow pain in mid-March, tests and opinions from doctors. But the result was different. Cole was diagnosed with nerve irritation and edema and, instead of surgery, he rested and rehabbed. He made his season debut on June 19 and pitched through the World Series without a setback.

In a statement he posted on Instagram later Monday, Cole said the surgery was a “necessary next step for my career,” adding that he has “a lot left to give, and I’m fully committed to the work ahead. I’ll attack my rehab every day and support the 2025 Yankees each step of the way. I love this game, I love competing, and I can’t wait to be back on the mound — stronger than ever.”

The ace logged 124 innings over 22 starts between the regular season and playoffs, tossing at least six innings in three of his five postseason outings. He then opted to alter his offseason throwing program by starting it earlier to continue his positive momentum. He said he was “in a really good spot” compared to other years at the start of camp.

But less than a month later, his season has been declared over.

Cole’s injury is the second major blow to the Yankees’ starting rotation this spring after Luis Gil, the reigning AL Rookie of the Year, sustained a lat strain that was expected to sideline him for at least three months.

Without the two right-handers, Max Fried, Carlos Rodon and Clarke Schmidt will top the Yankees’ starting rotation. Marcus Stroman, who was notably not expected to make the Opening Day rotation, is projected to slide into the No. 4 spot with Will Warren, a rookie who made his debut last season, and Carlos Carrasco, a soon-to-be-38-year-old veteran in camp as a non-roster invite, as the leading internal candidates to round out the quintet.

Other options in camp include right-hander Allan Winans, who has eight career starts on his résumé, and left-hander Brent Headrick, a starter in the minors who has never started a game in the majors.

The Yankees could also opt to sign a free agent — veterans Kyle Gibson and Lance Lynn are among those available — or swing a trade for an established starter.

Cole, a six-time All-Star, won the 2023 AL Cy Young Award and was the runner-up two other seasons. He has tallied at least 200 innings in six of his 10 full seasons (not including last year and the COVID-shortened 2020 season). He is as close to an old-school frontline workhorse in his prime that exists in baseball. It’s why the Yankees chose to sign Cole, a lifelong Yankees fan, to a nine-year, $324 million deal with a no-trade clause in December 2019 — the largest contract given to a pitcher at the time.

The agreement included a player opt-out after last season that the Yankees could’ve voided by attaching another year and $36 million to the four years and $144 million remaining on his contract. Cole exercised the opt out, but he never became a free agent and didn’t receive the extra year. Instead, the two sides agreed to continue as if Cole didn’t opt out two days later, keeping him under contract through the 2028 season at $36 million per year.

The Yankees have insurance on Cole’s contract, which will allow them to recoup some money for the time he’s out.

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Source: Dodgers, Roberts agree on 4-year deal

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Source: Dodgers, Roberts agree on 4-year deal

GLENDALE, Ariz. — Dave Roberts and the Los Angeles Dodgers are in agreement on a four-year extension that will set a record for average annual value on a manager’s contract, a source told ESPN on Monday.

The new deal, which runs from 2026 to 2029, will pay Roberts $32.4 million, carrying an $8.1 million average annual value that will narrowly edge out the yearly rate on Craig Counsell’s five-year, $40 million contract with the Chicago Cubs. Roberts, 52, will manage the 2025 season under his current contract, which was entering its final year.

A new deal was considered a foregone conclusion after the Dodgers secured their second championship in five years last fall. Serious negotiations began sometime around February; significant progress was made last week; and an announcement could come before the Dodgers fly to Japan to begin their season March 18. The 2025 season will mark Roberts’ 10th with the Dodgers.

“I can’t talk so much about it, but I do think that there’s finally some closure,” Roberts said after Monday’s Cactus League game. “I’m excited. Obviously this is the place I want to be. I’m sure I’ll go into it more. Hopefully there’s an announcement coming soon; I’m waiting. But this is the place I’ve always wanted to be. I just love what we’re doing.”

A cult hero in Boston for the stolen base that helped trigger an unprecedented comeback in the 2004 American League Championship Series, Roberts carved out a 10-year career as a major league outfielder, then spent five years on the San Diego Padres‘ coaching staff. The Dodgers hired Roberts to replace Don Mattingly in November 2015, making him the franchise’s first minority manager.

Since then, Roberts has guided the Dodgers to four National League pennants, eight division titles and a .627 regular-season winning percentage, the highest for someone who has managed at least 250 games. From 2016 to 2024, the Dodgers won 907 regular-season and postseason games. Only the Houston Astros (862) and the New York Yankees (807) even surpassed 800.

The Dodgers won at least 100 regular-season games in five of six full seasons from 2017 to 2023 and finished the 60-game 2020 campaign with a .717 winning percentage. The only year the Dodgers have not won the NL West under Roberts, in 2021, they finished with 106 victories — fewer by one than a San Francisco Giants team they later eliminated in the playoffs. And yet Roberts has only one Manager of the Year Award to his name, a sign of the harsh realities of his job.

For years, the Dodgers’ triumphs have been widely credited to an ownership group with deep pockets and a baseball operations department that is among the most astute in the industry. Roberts, meanwhile, had been left to shoulder the blame for repeated postseason disappointments. That was never more true than in 2019, when another 106-win Dodgers team lost in the NL Division Series to the Washington Nationals after Roberts rode Clayton Kershaw a little too long in a decisive Game 5.

But Roberts went on to manage the Dodgers through an unorthodox 2020 postseason that was staged in a bubble and did not include any days off within series, claiming the franchise’s first title in 32 years and buying himself more time. More October disappointment followed thereafter. The Dodgers were outlasted by the Atlanta Braves in the NLCS in 2021, then were defeated by inferior division rivals in the NLDS in 2022 and 2023, first the Padres and then the Arizona Diamondbacks.

A similar fate seemed to await the Dodgers in 2024. They found themselves a game away from elimination by the Padres in the NLDS, having to win in San Diego to keep their season afloat. A third consecutive early exit, immediately following a first-round bye, would have probably cost Roberts his job. But he managed through a bullpen game in Game 4, then rode more dominant pitching in Game 5 to advance. The Dodgers then breezed past the New York Mets and Yankees to secure their first full-season championship since 1988.

The 2024 season ultimately highlighted Roberts’ best traits. His even-keel demeanor helped the team navigate the betting scandal surrounding Shohei Ohtani‘s then-interpreter, Ippei Mizuhara, early in the year. His trademark positivity kept the team’s spirits high when injuries plagued star players such as Mookie Betts, Max Muncy, Yoshinobu Yamamoto and Tyler Glasnow throughout the summer. And in the fall, while dealing with an extremely compromised starting rotation, Roberts seemed to press all the right buttons.

He navigated through bullpen games on four occasions, most notably to save the season against the Padres and to win the pennant against the Mets. And in Game 5 of the World Series, when starting pitcher Jack Flaherty didn’t pitch past the second inning, Roberts rode a beleaguered group of relief pitchers while the Dodgers made a spirited comeback and entrusted another starter, Walker Buehler, to record the final three outs.

With the win, Roberts put himself alongside Walter Alston and Tommy Lasorda as the only Dodgers managers to win multiple rings. It more than likely secured his place in the Hall of Fame. But what he was most proud of was that the trust he had always extended to his players had been reciprocated.

“That’s everything,” Roberts told ESPN shortly after securing the championship. “I believe in them. And this is the first team that I felt really like the trust went both ways. And that regardless of whatever decision I made, they were going to support me 100 percent.”

The New York Post was first to report Roberts’ extension.

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