From privacy coins to shiny iris-scanning orbs, zero-knowledge proofs have become synonymous with crypto, scalability and privacy.
In 2022, investors gave over $700 million in funding to companies pushing the envelope with zero-knowledge proofs. This year, ZK-proofs has arguably become one of the biggest blockchain trends, with several major Ethereum scaling protocols hitting mainnet.
ZK-proofs are a cryptographic protocol that allows one party to prove the truth of a statement to another party without sharing any of the statement’s contents.
An often-cited example is proving to a bartender that you’re old enough to drink without showing your ID or even telling them your birthdate.
In August 2010, the user “Red” on the online forum Bitcointalk asked whether there could be a way to improve the privacy of Bitcoin transactions.
“One of the things that bugs me about bitcoin is that the entire history of transactions is completely public,” the forum-goer said. Another member piped in, suggesting that zero-knowledge proofs could be the solution.
“This is a very interesting topic,” replied Nakamoto.
“If a solution was found, a much better, easier, more convenient implementation of Bitcoin would be possible.”
However, Nakamoto wasn’t convinced the tech could get around the “double-spending” problem — a fundamental flaw that exists in all digital cash protocols where a bad actor could spend the same digital tokens more than once.
“It’s the need to check for the absence of double-spends that requires global knowledge of all transactions,” said Nakamoto.
Satoshi Nakamoto’s response to users suggesting ZK-proofs to raise the privacy of Bitcoin transactions. (Bitcointalk)
“It’s hard to think of how to apply zero-knowledge-proofs in this case. We’re trying to prove the absence of something, which seems to require knowing about all and checking that the something isn’t included,” he argued.
Years later, someone cracks the code
Little did Nakamoto know that the cypherpunks would eventually find a way to solve the problem.
Privacy-focused cryptocurrency Zcash was launched in October 2016 by Electric Coin — a firm made up of computer scientists from the formative years of Bitcoin. Zcash was built by modifying Bitcoin’s original source code.
It was also the first time zero-knowledge proofs were used in a real peer-to-peer cryptocurrency, allowing users to hide or shield the crypto wallet address sending or receiving funds.
The world finally knows that famed whistleblower Edward Snowden was one of the pivotal members of the Zcash Ceremony, where six people combined portions of the project’s private key to launch it in 2016. https://t.co/Lgag6bGA0n
The founding scientist of Zcash, Eli Ben-Sasson, would then go on to found StarkWare, a company known today for using zero-knowledge proofs to scale Ethereum through rollups.
Ben-Sasson tells Magazine that the early enthusiasm from Bitcoin core developers for ZK-proofs played a “pivotal role” in his eventual co-founding of StarkWare.
“The Bitcoin 2013 conference in San Jose marked my Eureka moment.”
“Mike Hearn, a then-Bitcoin developer and one of the earliest Bitcoin adopters, went as far as to declare my talk on ZK-proofs as the most crucial of the event due to its potential impact on the future of blockchain.”
“It was there that I realized the transformative potential of the Validity Proofs I was developing,” says Ben-Sasson.
Fast forward to today, Bitcoin itself now stands ready to enter the world of ZK-proofs.
ZeroSync, a nonprofit founded by three computer scientists (and sponsored by StarkWare), is developing the world’s first ZK light client for Bitcoin.
“Long-term, we hope to bring mass scalability to Bitcoin using STARK Proofs,” said Robin Linus, co-founder of ZeroSync.
Linus said that ZeroSync has designed and is currently implementing a layer-2 protocol that could allow Bitcoin to process more than 100 transactions per second while bringing privacy properties to Bitcoin.
“This could be a major feat in bringing Bitcoin toward the scalability it needs.”
So what would Nakamoto think?
“It’s evident from Satoshi’s past remarks that he strongly favored the use of ZK-proofs for privacy,” says Ben-Sasson.
Nakamoto was a stickler for anonymity. His public interactions on Bitcointalk and his emails were all reportedly done using the IP-masking browser, Tor. It’s the main reason his public IP address could never be traced back to him.
The administrator for Bitcointalk says Nakamoto has always used The Onion Router (Tor) to access the forum. (Bitcointalk)
The Bitcoin creator even dedicated a section to privacy in the Bitcoin white paper, suggesting users keep their public keys anonymous so that, even though the public can see transactions occurring, they don’t know who is involved, like a stock exchange.
Privacy diagram as shown in the Bitcoin white paper. (Bitcoin.org)
“It’s clear that Satoshi would have been intrigued by the privacy innovations my peers and I contributed to at Zcash,” says Ben-Sasson.
Unfortunately, Nakamoto never approached the subject again before he vanished from the public eye on Dec. 12, 2010 — the date of his last post on Bitcointalk.
“While they have recently found their way into Bitcoin through ZeroSync, I believe Satoshi would have been inclined to make the necessary adjustments to integrate them further,” he says.
“After all, for Bitcoin to realize its vision as a global currency, the imperative to scale cannot be ignored, especially considering its current state of ossification.”
Subscribe
The most engaging reads in blockchain. Delivered once a
week.
Felix Ng
Felix Ng first began writing about the blockchain industry through the lens of a gambling industry journalist and editor in 2015. He has since moved into covering the blockchain space full-time. He is most interested in innovative blockchain technology aimed at solving real-world challenges.
The Conservatives have repeated calls for Angela Rayner to resign after a legal firm she used said it did not provide her with tax advice in a row over underpaid stamp duty.
Party leader Kemi Badenoch said more “damning evidence” had come to light regarding the deputy leader’s tax affairs, which is now subject to an investigation by the prime minister’s independent ethics adviser Sir Laurie Magnus.
The Daily Telegraph reported that Verrico & Associates, a conveyancing firm that handled the purchase of her £800,000 flat in Hove, East Sussex, did not in fact give tax or trust advice to Ms Rayner – and that they believed they had been made “scapegoats” in the political row.
Joanna Verrico, the managing director, told The Telegraph: “We acted for Ms Rayner when she purchased the flat in Hove. We did not and never have given tax or trust advice. It’s something we always refer our clients to an accountant or tax expert for.
“The stamp duty for the Hove flat was calculated using HMRC’s own online calculator, based on the figures and the information provided by Ms Rayner. That’s what we used, and it told us we had to pay £30,000 based on the information provided to us. We believe that we did everything correctly and in good faith. Everything was exactly as it should be.
“We probably are being made scapegoats for all this, and I have got the arrows stuck in my back to show it. We are not an inexperienced firm, but we’re not qualified to give advice on trust and tax matters and we advise clients to seek expert advice on these.”
More on Angela Rayner
Related Topics:
Sky News has approached representatives for Ms Rayner for comment as well Verrico & Associates.
The deputy prime minister, who is also the housing secretary, has been under scrutiny after the newspaper claimed she avoided £40,000 in stamp duty on the flat in Hove by removing her name from the deeds of another property in Greater Manchester.
Ms Rayner said she sold her stake in her family home in Ashton-under-Lyne to a trust that was set up to provide for her teenage son, who has lifelong disabilities – meaning she did not technically own that home when she purchased the one in Hove, and so was not subject to the higher rate of stamp duty that applies to second homes.
Please use Chrome browser for a more accessible video player
4:01
Liz Bates on the row engulfing Angela Rayner
On Tuesday Sir Keir Starmer’s deputyclaimed she made an honest mistake owing to her “complex” living situation and that lawyers initially advised her she only owed the basic rate of stamp duty for the Hove property.
In an interview with Sky News’ Electoral Dysfunction podcast, Ms Rayner became tearful as she claimed she received incorrect tax advice and spoke to her family about “packing it all in”.
However, following subsequent media reports, Ms Rayner sought further legal advice on Monday this week which advised her that the higher rate of stamp duty was in fact due on her East Sussex flat.
The deputy prime minister has claimed she made an honest mistake as lawyers initially advised her she only owed the basic rate of stamp duty when she bought a flat in Hove in May.
On the statement from Verrico & Associates, Ms Badenoch said: “This is yet more damning evidence that Angela Rayner has not been honest with the British public.
“From the start we’ve had nothing but excuses, deflections and lies. Enough is enough.
“How many final straws can there be for Angela Rayner? She must resign or Keir Starmer must finally find the backbone to sack her.”
Sir Keir Starmer has so far said he would not be drawn on Ms Rayner’s political future, but said he would “of course” act on the findings of Sir Laurie who will look into whether she broke ministerial rules.
In an interview with the BBC, Sir Keir said: “There’s a clear procedure. I strengthened that procedure. I am expecting a result pretty quickly.
“I do want it to be comprehensive … and then of course I will act on whatever the report is that’s put in front of me.”
The proposed rule changes potentially affecting SEC guidelines on broker-dealers, custody and reporting could allow crypto companies to operate in the US with less oversight.
The backgrounds of Angela Rayner and Sir Laurie Magnus – the sleaze watchdog who holds her fate in his hands – couldn’t be more different.
Labour’s “Red Queen” is a working-class council house girl who got pregnant at 16. He’s an old Etonian “quango king”, a City grandee and a pillar of the establishment.
He’s so posh he wasn’t awarded his knighthood in the usual way by the Monarch after being nominated by 10 Downing Street. He’s a baronet whose title is hereditary.
But though Sir Laurie’s a proper toff, he’s no pushover and he doesn’t waste time. In 2023 his investigation into former Tory minister Nadhim Zahawi’s tax affairs took just six days.
Sir Laurie concluded that Mr Zahawi’s conduct had fallen below what was expected from a minister. So the then PM Rishi Sunak sacked him for a “serious breach of the ministerial code”.
This year, Labour minister Tulip Siddiq quit after Sir Laurie said she should have been more alert to “potential reputational risks” of ties to her aunt in an anti-corruption investigation in Bangladesh.
That inquiry took eight days, so might Sir Laurie’s Angela Rayner probe take about a week? Perhaps, though it has been suggested he’s due to go on holiday on Saturday. So could his report come before then?
More on Angela Rayner
Related Topics:
Sir Laurie was appointed by Mr Sunak more than eight weeks after he became PM. At the time, there were claims that he was struggling to find a candidate.
That was because the two previous holders of the post, veteran mandarin Sir Alex Allan and former Royal courtier Sir Christopher Geidt, both quit after disagreements with Boris Johnson.
Sir Alex quit in 2020 after finding former home secretary Priti Patel guilty of bullying. But then Mr Johnson declared that she had not breached the ministerial code.
Please use Chrome browser for a more accessible video player
7:19
Angela Rayner admitted to Beth Rigby that she didn’t pay enough tax on a property she bought in Hove.
Sir Christopher, a former private secretary to the Queen, quit in June 2022 after concluding Mr Johnson may have broken ministerial rules over party-gate.
So Mr Sunak turned to Sir Laurie, a former merchant banker who served on half a dozen quangos and whose long business career involved links with disgraced retail tycoon Sir Philip Green and the late tycoon Robert Maxwell.
There was immediately controversy because Mr Sunak refused to give Sir Laurie the power to launch his own investigations into allegations or ministerial wrong-doing. That changed when Sir Keir Starmer became PM last year.
But before then, Sir Laurie couldn’t launch his own inquiry into the conduct of Dominic Raab over bullying allegations or Suella Braverman over claims of leaking and ignoring legal advice over asylum.
Please use Chrome browser for a more accessible video player
2:26
Sky’s Paul Kelso breaks down the facts behind Angela Rayner’s stamp duty controversy.
The role of independent adviser on ministerial standards, to give Sir Laurie his official title, was created by Tony Blair in 2006. Ministers can refer themselves for investigation, as Tulip Siddiq and Angela Rayner both did.
Why was Sir Laurie chosen? A senior Square Mile insider told Sky News: “Laurie Magnus is very much a member of the City’s great and the good.”
Sir Laurence Henry Philip Magnus, 3rd Baronet is the third in a baronetcy that dates back to 1917, when it was awarded to an ancestor who represented London University in the House of Commons.
His quango CV includes the chairmanship of Historic England, a former trustee of the conservation charity the Landmark Trust, ex-chair of the National Trust, membership of the Culture Recovery Fund, a trustee of English Heritage Trust and deputy chair of the All Churches Trust.
Please use Chrome browser for a more accessible video player
2:32
Has Rayner tax issues thrown uncertainty over the Starmer project?
As Historic England boss, Sir Laurie entered the row over the tearing down of the statue of slave trader Edward Colston in Bristol, claiming such statues should not be removed but have “counter-memorials” placed alongside them.
Besides his quango roles, Sir Laurie remains a major figure in the City, as a senior adviser at investment banking group Evercore and chairing two FTSE 250 listed investment trusts.
Which means that the class divide between the old Etonian City grandee and the former shop steward and champion of workers’ rights whose fate is in his hands couldn’t be greater.