The surface temperature of the moon experiences extreme variations, making it one of the harshest environments in the solar system. During lunar daylight, temperatures can soar to over 100 degrees Celsius, while in darkness, they can plummet to minus 100 degrees Celsius. These fluctuations are caused by the absence of an atmosphere, which on Earth moderates temperature extremes. Instead, the moon’s surface directly absorbs and radiates heat depending on exposure to sunlight.

Lunar Temperature Variations Explained

According to data provided by NASA and analysed by experts, such as John Monnier, a professor of astronomy at the University of Michigan, the moon’s soil, or regolith, significantly influences these temperature shifts. Regolith is a poor conductor of heat, causing rapid temperature changes on the surface while insulating the subsurface. As reported by Live Science, during Apollo missions, measurements indicated that temperatures beneath the surface were warmer by 40 to 45 kelvins compared to the lunar exterior.

Further research using NASA’s Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter (LRO), launched in 2009, revealed localised thermal anomalies. Findings in 2022 demonstrated that shaded areas within certain lunar pits maintained a consistent temperature of 17 degrees Celsius. These regions are considered promising for future human habitation.

The Moon’s Poles and Extreme Conditions

The lunar poles present unique thermal environments due to the sun’s low angle. Permanently shadowed craters, particularly at the south pole, may host temperatures as low as minus 248.15 degrees Celsius. These craters are shielded not only from direct sunlight but also from secondary heat sources, such as reflected solar radiation. Such locations could hold trapped ice particles, potentially vital for sustaining future lunar exploration missions.

Understanding the moon’s thermal dynamics is essential for designing equipment capable of withstanding its conditions and planning potential settlements. Scientists and engineers continue to study these extremes to ensure that future missions can navigate and thrive in the lunar environment.

The first Starlink mission of 2025 was successfully launched by SpaceX from Florida’s Cape Canaveral Space Force Station on January 6, 2025, at 2:13 a.m. IST. A Falcon 9 rocket carried 24 Starlink satellites into orbit, aiming to expand SpaceX’s vast satellite internet network. The launch marked another significant step in SpaceX’s efforts to enhance global connectivity through its growing constellation of satellites.

Details of the Mission

According to a report from space.com, the Falcon 9 rocket’s first stage completed a flawless return to Earth, landing on the droneship “Just Read the Instructions,” positioned in the Atlantic Ocean. This milestone represented the 17th launch and recovery for this particular booster. SpaceX confirmed that this booster has supported 10 prior Starlink missions and was used in the Crew-5 mission, which transported astronauts to the International Space Station.

The upper stage of the rocket is expected to deploy the 24 satellites into low Earth orbit approximately 65 minutes after liftoff. These satellites will join the more than 6,850 active Starlink spacecraft currently operating, as stated to space.com by astrophysicist Jonathan McDowell, who tracks satellite constellations.

Starlink’s Expanding Network

Starlink, developed by SpaceX, is the largest satellite network in history. Its purpose is to deliver high-speed internet access globally, including remote and underserved areas. With launches like this, the constellation continues to grow, reinforcing SpaceX’s position as a leader in satellite-based internet services. This launch follows a year of record-breaking achievements for SpaceX, which conducted numerous successful missions in 2024. The company remains focused on accelerating its deployment of satellites, with regular launches planned throughout 2025.

As SpaceX continues its Starlink initiative, its impact on global connectivity and advancements in reusable rocket technology remain noteworthy. The company’s commitment to innovation in space exploration is expected to shape the future of satellite communications.

India’s Space Research Organisation (ISRO) has postponed its first-ever attempt at space docking mission to January 9, 2025, citing the need for additional validation. The mission, known as the Space Docking Experiment (SpaDeX), involves the automated docking of two satellites in low Earth orbit. Originally scheduled for January 07, 2024, ISRO said that the delay was attributed to an identified abort scenario during ground simulations. This test is crucial for ISRO’s future ambitions in space exploration and will demonstrate India’s capability in automated spacecraft docking technology.

Validation of Docking Systems

As per the official post on X, ISRO officials have stated that the mission’s complexity necessitates comprehensive ground-based simulations before proceeding. The SpaDeX mission involves two satellites, designated Chaser and Target, each weighing 220 kilogrammes. The Chaser satellite is programmed to approach and dock with the Target satellite while orbiting at an altitude of approximately 470 kilometers. This experiment is expected to validate key technologies required for crewed and robotic missions to the Moon and near-Earth space.

Significance for Future Missions

SpaDeX holds significant importance for India’s long-term space objectives, as highlighted by Jitendra Singh, Minister of State for Science and Technology. Docking technology will be integral to assembling and operating the Bharatiya Antariksha Station, a crewed space station planned for 2040. It will also play a pivotal role in the Chandrayaan-4 mission, scheduled for 2028, which aims to return lunar samples to Earth through a similar docking mechanism.

Other Technological Demonstrations

Apart from SpaDeX, ISRO has launched 24 other experiments on a PSLV rocket’s POEM-4 platform. Among these are India’s first crawling robotic arm, a device to capture space debris, and other advanced payloads. These demonstrations underscore the agency’s efforts to advance its technological capabilities for future space missions.

This delay reflects ISRO’s commitment to precision and safety in achieving milestones critical to its growing presence in global space exploration.