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Elon Musk, the influential figure behind SpaceX, has expressed a pragmatic view on the timeline for human colonization of Mars. Speaking at the Satellite 2020 conference, Musk noted the slow pace of advancements in space exploration, he may not live to see a sustainable Martian settlement. Despite SpaceX’s strides, such as successful Falcon 9 and Falcon Heavy launches, Musk remains uncertain about the feasibility of a thriving Mars colony within his lifetime.

Challenges and Costs of Mars Colonization

In the new book “SpaceX: Elon Musk and the Final Frontier” (Motorbooks), science journalist Brad Bergan highlights Musk’s point of view of Mars along with other things. Musk’s concerns reflect the substantial obstacles facing Mars colonization. While reaching Mars might be feasible in the coming decades, creating a self-sustaining settlement is a far more complex endeavour. Musk had previously projected that moving to Mars could eventually cost between $100,000 (roughly Rs. 84,00,000) and $500,000 (roughly Rs. 4,20,00,000) per person. However, these estimates are contingent upon major technological breakthroughs and drastic reductions in launch costs, which are currently significant barriers.

Economic and Logistical Hurdles

The financial and logistical requirements for establishing a Mars colony are immense. Musk estimated in 2017 that transporting materials to Mars would cost around $140,000 (roughly Rs. 1,20,00,000) per ton. With inflation and other considerations, this figure could rise substantially. Building a functional settlement might necessitate upwards of $100 billion (roughly Rs. 8.4 lakh crore), a figure that underscores the enormous challenge involved. The high costs, coupled with the need for significant advancements in technology, contribute to the uncertainty surrounding Mars colonization.

Given the formidable challenges associated with Mars, space exploration efforts may shift towards more immediate objectives. Developing a sustainable human presence on the Moon or exploring asteroids for resources could offer more achievable goals and provide valuable insights for future Mars missions. These efforts might pave the way for the eventual colonization of Mars, but they will require overcoming substantial technical and financial hurdles.

Musk’s reflections serve as a sobering reminder of the complexities involved in space exploration. While the dream of colonizing Mars is compelling, the reality is that achieving it will demand significant progress and innovation. The path forward involves addressing these challenges while exploring other space-related opportunities.

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Did Our Ancestors Use Tools 3 Million Years Ago?

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November 14, 2024

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Did Our Ancestors Use Tools 3 Million Years Ago?

New research on australopithecine hand anatomy suggests that Lucy, one of the oldest known ancestors to humans, and her species might have engaged in tool-related activities over 3 million years ago. This revelation, based on muscle attachment studies, implies that some early hominins may have manipulated objects long before the Homo genus emerged.

The study, published in Journal of Human Evolution, was led by paleoanthropologist Fotios Alexandros Karakostis from the University of Tübingen, Germany. Researchers analysed hand muscle attachment sites, known as entheses, in three different australopithecine species and compared them with human and ape hand bones. It was observed that muscle attachment points on these ancient hand bones suggest frequent use of grasping and manipulation similar to human tool use. “While there is no direct evidence that these hominins created tools, their hand structures show they likely performed activities involving precise grip and object manipulation,” explained Karakostis.

Evolving Dexterity in Early Hominins

The study, which was published in the November issue of the Journal of Human Evolution, indicate that australopithecines, particularly Australopithecus afarensis and Australopithecus sediba, may have possessed dexterity akin to modern humans. The recent species among these, A. sediba, had a more humanlike hand compared to its earlier relatives, which retained both ape and human traits in their hand structure. The study further reveals that the placement and adaptation of muscle attachment sites in these species highlight how their hands might have been used to manage tasks such as food preparation, grasping, and perhaps even using primitive tools.

Jana Kunze, a paleoanthropologist also from the University of Tübingen, noted that the development of the first dorsal interosseus muscle between the thumb and index finger might have supported a precise grip. This feature, coupled with adaptations in the pinky finger, would have enhanced the species’ ability to manipulate objects effectively, providing essential functionality that may have led to technological advancements among early hominins.

Although Homo habilis, known as “handyman” due to its association with early stone tools, is traditionally credited as the first toolmaker, this study challenges the assumption that australopithecines lacked the anatomical ability for tool creation. Tracy Kivell, Director of Human Origins at the Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology, observed that each australopithecine species may have developed unique hand adaptations, potentially using their dexterity for both tool use and climbing.

This analysis adds evidence to the hypothesis that certain humanlike traits in dexterity emerged before the evolution of the Homo genus, pushing back the timeline of possible tool use to australopithecines over 3 million years ago.

(Except for the headline, this story has not been edited by NDTV staff and is published from a press release)

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Indian Scientists Engineer Bacteria To Perform Math Operations

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November 14, 2024

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Indian Scientists Engineer Bacteria To Perform Math Operations

Genetic engineering efforts at the Saha Institute of Nuclear Physics (SINP) in Kolkata have recently produced a type of bacteria that can perform mathematical operations. This breakthrough demonstrates that bacterial cells, when modified, can conduct addition, subtraction and even identify prime numbers between 0 and 9. The work by Indian researchers suggests a possible foundation for creating biocomputers—devices that utilise living cells for computation. This research could drive forward the integration of biological systems within computational science.

Biocomputing’s Evolution and Emerging Capabilities

The study was published in the journal Nature Chemical Biology. The use of living cells for computing has seen two decades of incremental progress. Initially, synthetic biology allowed scientists to develop cellular logic gates for fundamental operations like “AND,” “OR,” and “NOT,” mimicking the functions of silicon processors but on a much simpler level. By adjusting genetic networks in organisms like E. coli and yeast, researchers were able to prompt cells to perform addition and subtraction. However, the operations achieved in these early studies remained basic in scope, not yet matching the complexity of modern digital processors.

Advances in Bacterial Computation through Neural Network Principles

In their current work, SINP scientists applied artificial neural network models to the genetic framework of E. coli bacteria, integrating 14 unique genetic circuits to form distinct bacterial types. These bacteria were placed in controlled liquid environments, where they could execute computations including determining whether numbers are prime. For example, when subjected to specific chemical stimuli, the bacteria signalled their responses by secreting proteins that indicated “yes” in green and “no” in red. This application of bacteria to solve more abstract problems, such as identifying prime numbers, marks a first in biological computing.

Implications for Future Research

According to Mohit Kumar Jolly, an assistant professor at the Indian Institute of Science in Bangalore, the study could provide insights into the decision-making abilities of cells, a process that yet to be fully understood. The findings open up new avenues in the study of biological information processing and reveal untapped potential for living cells in computational applications. This work by SINP researchers may well redefine the scope of computation, revealing bacteria’s potential as a biological computing medium.

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Did Mars Once Have Oceans? China’s Rover Zhurong Reveals New Clues

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November 14, 2024

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Did Mars Once Have Oceans? China’s Rover Zhurong Reveals New Clues

Evidence of an ancient ocean on Mars has been potentially uncovered by China’s Zhurong rover, scientists report. Data gathered by the now-defunct rover indicates a possible ancient shoreline in Mars’ northern hemisphere. Researchers at Hong Kong Polytechnic University, including lead scientist Bo Wu, believe these findings support long-standing theories of a large Martian ocean that existed billions of years ago. The Zhurong rover, which travelled approximately 2 kilometres within the Utopia Planitia basin, relayed this data through observations from its onboard cameras and ground-penetrating radar.

The study describing the findings was published in the journal Scientific Reports. Through Zhurong’s exploration, researchers identified features possibly related to water activity, including pitted cones, channels, and formations resembling mud volcanoes. Such structures, the scientists suggest, could represent a coastal landscape shaped by the once-existing ocean. Further analysis of the surface deposits indicates that the ocean may have existed around 3.68 billion years ago, potentially containing silt-laden water that left distinct geological layers on the Martian landscape.
Complex History of Water on Mars

The research team posits that Mars’ ancient ocean may have experienced phases of freezing and thawing, contributing to the formation of the observed coastline. Sergey Krasilnikov of Hong Kong Polytechnic University noted that the ocean may have frozen over for about 10,000 to 100,000 years before completely drying up, roughly 260 million years later. Wu acknowledged the difficulty in conclusively determining the shoreline due to erosion over millennia but proposed that asteroid impacts could have preserved certain regions of the coastline.

Future Prospects for Verifying Mars’ Water History

Despite Zhurong’s findings, scientists acknowledge that definitive evidence of Mars’ ancient water history will require analysis of Martian samples on Earth. China’s Tianwen 3 mission, set to launch in 2028, aims to return surface samples by 2031. In comparison, NASA’s Mars Sample Return mission is projected to return samples in the 2030s.

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