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A recent study proposes that the wheel, one of the most transformative inventions in human history, could have first been developed by copper miners in the Carpathian Mountains around 6,000 years ago. This theory, based on a detailed modelling study, suggests that the unique environment of these mining regions may have played a crucial role in shaping early wheel designs. Richard Bulliet, Professor Emeritus at Columbia University, and engineers Kai James and Lee Alacoque, explored how the challenges faced by miners might have driven key advancements in wheel technology.

Tracing the Wheel’s Early Beginnings

While evidence of wheeled vehicles has been found across Europe, Asia, and North Africa from around 5000 to 3000 B.C., pinpointing the wheel’s exact origins remains a mystery. The research focused on the Carpathian region between 4000 and 3500 B.C., when copper miners faced the difficult task of transporting heavy loads through narrow mine shafts. The team suggests that these practical challenges likely influenced the development of basic transport mechanisms, eventually leading to the wheel’s creation.

The Innovations Behind Early Wheels

The study highlights 3 major and important innovations that likely emerged as people experimented with moving heavy objects. Primarily they think that miners would have used rollers to shift large loads. The first evidence was the creation of grooved rollers, which allowed materials to move more smoothly without slipping off. The next step was the introduction of a wheelset, where wheels were attached to a fixed axle, allowing carts to roll over rough terrain. Finally, the design evolved with wheels that moved independently of the axle, offering better control and manoeuvrability.

What’s Next?

This study sheds light on how the wheel may have originated in Eastern Europe but the researchers have acknowledged the possibility that other ancient cultures could have discovered similar solutions independently.

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Apophis asteroid may see landslides, tremors during its 2029 Earth flyby

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November 6, 2024

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Apophis asteroid may see landslides, tremors during its 2029 Earth flyby

In April 2029, asteroid Apophis will pass exceptionally close to Earth—at just 20,000 miles away, closer than many satellites. The encounter may trigger significant physical changes on the asteroid’s surface due to Earth’s gravitational pull, potentially causing landslides and tremors, according to a recent study. Apophis, a 340-meter, peanut-shaped asteroid named after the ancient Egyptian deity associated with chaos, is not expected to impact Earth. However, this flyby could offer scientists a unique opportunity to observe how gravitational forces affect small celestial bodies.

New Insights into Surface Alterations

The study, currently available on the arXiv preprint database, has been accepted for publication in The Planetary Science Journal. Asteroid scientist Ronald-Louis Ballouz from Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory and his team conducted computational simulations of Apophis to predict the changes Earth’s gravity might induce. Ballouz notes that while meteoroids constantly weather asteroid surfaces in space, close planetary encounters can also alter an asteroid’s appearance. The gravitational pull from Earth is expected to disrupt Apophis’ surface by triggering tremors, lifting rocks, and creating visible patterns.

Predicted Surface Shifts and Landslides

The team’s models suggest that Apophis will experience surface tremors starting an hour before it reaches its closest approach to Earth, potentially dislodging boulders. Although Apophis’ own gravity is weak, this gravitational “shaking” could loft rocks briefly before they fall back, forming new surface features. Additionally, Apophis’ irregular rotation, or “tumbling,” might accelerate or slow down due to Earth’s gravitational influence. These shifts in tumbling could further destabilise rocks over time, potentially leading to gradual landslides that shape the asteroid’s surface over tens of thousands of years.

Future Observations with NASA’s OSIRIS-APEX Mission

Scientists hope to verify these findings when NASA’s OSIRIS-APEX spacecraft studies Apophis in 2029. Repurposed from its earlier mission to the asteroid Bennu, OSIRIS-APEX is set to examine Apophis’ chemical composition and surface features over an 18-month mission. This research could help solve longstanding questions about how gravitational encounters refresh asteroid surfaces, providing new insights into asteroid dynamics and planetary formation processes.

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Could a hidden planet beyond Neptune be altering the solar system?

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November 6, 2024

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Could a hidden planet beyond Neptune be altering the solar system?

Astronomers may be on the brink of uncovering a ninth hidden planet in our solar system. As theories surrounding its existence gain momentum, the hypothetical planet, often referred to as “Planet Nine,” is suspected to be located far beyond Neptune, in the Kuiper Belt. The Kuiper belt is a region filled with icy objects orbiting the Sun. Though no direct observation has been made, researchers have observed peculiar gravitational anomalies in the Kuiper Belt, suggesting the influence of an unseen, massive object.

Evidence for Planet Nine’s Existence

The potential existence of Planet Nine first gained scientific traction in 2016. It was when Michael Brown and Konstantin Batygin, professors at the California Institute of Technology, proposed that an unseen planet could explain the unusual orbits of certain Kuiper Belt objects. They theorised that the gravitational pull of this planet may be altering the paths of these distant bodies. Brown was also involved in the reclassification of Pluto as a dwarf planet, suggested that Planet Nine could be significantly larger than Earth, possibly ten times its mass.

Tracking the Unseen Planet

Efforts to locate Planet Nine are ongoing, with multiple observatories around the world dedicating resources to the search. Advances in telescope technology and data analysis have provided scientists with more tools to investigate this mystery, though tracking such a distant and faint object remains challenging. Astronomers are focusing on understanding the unusual orbital patterns of smaller objects in the Kuiper Belt, hoping they may eventually lead to Planet Nine’s precise location.

Anticipated Breakthroughs in Near Future

With growing advancements in observational technology and collaborations across the globe, scientists are optimistic. As new telescopes come online and data accumulates, researchers like Brown and Batygin believe that a definitive answer could emerge within the next decade. If discovered, Planet Nine would reshape our understanding of the solar system’s boundaries, marking a major scientific milestone in space exploration.

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Bio-Based Fibres Might Be A Bigger Environmental Threat Than Plastics

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November 6, 2024

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Bio-Based Fibres Might Be A Bigger Environmental Threat Than Plastics

A recent study has suggested that bio-based fibres, often marketed as environmentally friendly replacements for plastics, may pose greater ecological threats than previously assumed. Conducted by the University of Plymouth and the University of Bath as part of the £2.6 million BIO-PLASTIC-RISK project, the research reveals that these fibres, used in everyday items like clothing and wet wipes, can release microfibres that harm ecosystems, particularly through laundry wastewater, sewage sludge, and wear-induced fibre shedding.

Comparing Bio-Based Fibres with Conventional Plastics

In a detailed analysis, scientists compared the impact of conventional polyester with two common bio-based fibres, viscose and lyocell, on earthworms—species vital to soil health. The findings showed that bio-based materials might be significantly more hazardous. In lab tests, up to 80% of earthworms exposed to viscose fibres died, compared to 30 percent mortality among those exposed to polyester. When exposed to lyocell, 60 percent of earthworms did not survive. At lower, environmentally relevant exposure levels, viscose was linked to lower reproduction rates, while lyocell led to reduced growth and altered burrowing behaviours.

Importance of Rigorous Testing for New Materials

Dr. Winnie Courtene-Jones, a Lecturer in Marine Pollution at Bangor University and lead author of the study, pointed out the critical need for more comprehensive testing. She noted that while bio-based and biodegradable fibres are produced in large volumes—over 320,000 tonnes in 2022—insufficient data exists on their environmental impacts. “Our study underscores the importance of evidence-based approaches before rolling out new materials that aim to replace conventional plastics,” Dr. Courtene-Jones stated, highlighting that ecological impacts, especially on soil health, must be factored into evaluations of bio-based products.

Implications for the Future of Plastic Alternatives

This study, which builds on prior research linking biodegradable tea bags to increased earthworm mortality, arrives ahead of key discussions on plastic pollution at the upcoming United Nations conference in Busan, South Korea. Professor Richard Thompson, Head of the University of Plymouth’s International Marine Litter Research Unit, emphasised the need for an evidence-based strategy. He remarked, “Reducing plastic pollution is essential, but this research shows that substitute materials must undergo rigorous environmental testing to avoid unintended consequences.”

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