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A recent study has provided crucial insights into the manufacturing techniques used to create the Nebra Sky Disc, an artefact thought to date back 3,800 years to the Early Bronze Age. The analysis challenges claims suggesting the disc could be a modern forgery. Researchers revealed that the disc was crafted through an elaborate “hot forging” process, involving at least ten heating and hammering cycles at temperatures exceeding 700°C, according to Christian-Heinrich Wunderlich, a metallurgist cited by Live Science.

Discovery and Ongoing Debate

The study was published in Scientific Reports on November 21. Unearthed in 1999 near Nebra, Germany, the 12-inch bronze disc, adorned with gold symbols thought to represent celestial bodies, has been the subject of considerable debate. Initial reports lauded it as the oldest known depiction of the sky. However, questions regarding its authenticity arose, including theories suggesting its discovery site might have been staged to enhance its market value.

Experts involved in the study recreated a replica using Early Bronze Age techniques, reportedly. The metallographic comparison between the replica and the original disc identified crystal structures in the bronze consistent with ancient hot forging methods. Wunderlich in a statement to LiveScience said that the copper used in the disc was traced to a specific Austrian mine active during the Early Bronze Age but no longer operational in subsequent eras. This finding undermines suggestions that the artefact might be significantly younger.

Symbolism and Craftsmanship

The disc combines bronze with gold elements using a technique known as damascening. Harald Meller, state archaeologist of Saxony-Anhalt, emphasised in his statement that the advanced metalworking skills evident in its construction. The gold inlays, possibly depicting the sun, moon, stars, and other celestial elements, have been interpreted as an early astronomical chart.

The artefact remains on display at the Saxony-Anhalt State Museum of Prehistory, celebrated for its historical significance. While disputes surrounding its origins continue, recent findings provide strong evidence supporting its Bronze Age provenance.

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Scientists Chase Falling Satellite to Study Atmospheric Pollution from Spacecraft Reentries

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Scientists Chase Falling Satellite to Study Atmospheric Pollution from Spacecraft Reentries

Scientists take advantage of the spectacular airborne chase of a falling satellite to gather rare data on atmospheric pollution from burnt-up spacecraft. In September 2024, a group of European researchers hopped on an aeroplane outfitted with 26 cameras and flew into the night sky to watch the satellite Cluster Salsa make its flaming return to Earth over the Pacific Ocean. The mission, which was launched from Easter Island, sought chemical byproducts that would have been released during that short, meteor-like reentry event. Despite the glare of bright natural light that impeded a clear view, the researchers captured for the first time images of the satellite fracturing and chemicals being released as it fell to Earth.

Satellite Reentries May Impact Ozone and Climate, Scientists Warn

As per the report presented at the European Conference on Space Debris, reentry produced lithium, potassium, and aluminum emissions — elements with the potential to impact the ozone layer and Earth’s climate. Stefan Löhle of the University of Stuttgart mentioned that the satellite’s weak trail indicated that pieces splintered off and burned with less ferocity than predicted. The satellite started to disintegrate at about 80 kilometres above sea level, and the observations stopped at a height of around 40 kilometres due to the visual extinction.

Such events are increasingly important to monitor as satellite reentries grow in frequency. Although spacecraft such as those in SpaceX’s Starlink fleet are made to burn up completely, surviving debris and dust particles could still affect the upper atmosphere, scientists caution. The aluminum oxide from the melting satellites, for example, could be involved in long-term atmospheric effects, such as changes in thermal balance and ozone destruction.

This mission marks only the fifth time a spacecraft reentry has been observed from the air. Researchers hope to align their collected data with computer models to estimate how much mass satellites lose during disintegration and how that mass interacts chemically with the atmosphere. The data also suggest that some titanium components from the 550-kilogram Cluster Salsa may have survived reentry and landed in the Pacific Ocean.

As more satellites return to Earth, researchers plan to repeat the chase with Salsa’s sister satellites—Rumba, Tango, and Samba—expected to re-enter by 2026. Despite daytime limitations affecting some measurement techniques, these missions may help clarify how spacecraft pollution influences Earth’s upper atmosphere and climate.

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NASA Stacks Artemis 2 Second Stage While the Future of SLS Remains Uncertain

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NASA Stacks Artemis 2 Second Stage While the Future of SLS Remains Uncertain

NASA’s Artemis 2 mission has reached a major milestone as the second stage that powers the Artemis 2 rocket, the Interim Cryogenic Propulsion Stage (ICPS), has been stacked. Kennedy Space Centre in Florida’s technicians mounted the ICPS on top of the SLS rocket inside the Vehicle Assembly Building on May 1. Driven by its upper stage, NASA’s Orion spacecraft and four-person crew—three NASA astronauts and one Canadian—out of Earth orbit will travel a free-return path around the moon, therefore allowing NASA’s return to deep space exploration.

NASA Advances Artemis 2 Moon Mission as Future of SLS and Orion Faces Uncertainty

As per NASA’s announcement, the ICPS arrived at the VAB last month and was hoisted into position inside the rocket stage adapter. The stage is critical for completing the crew’s journey past low Earth orbit during the 10-day Artemis 2 mission. Images shared by NASA show the second stage being lowered into place, while the Orion spacecraft and service module, delivered this week by Lockheed Martin, await integration. Exploration Ground Systems will process the Orion module before joining the rest of the launch vehicle.

Artemis 2 follows Artemis 1, which launched uncrewed in 2022 and revealed issues with Orion’s heat shield that delayed future missions. The Artemis 2 crew will fly a lunar pass rather than enter lunar orbit. The success of the mission will be vital in opening the path for Artemis 3, currently set for 2027, whereupon humans would land on the moon using a SpaceX Starship lander.

Even with continuous development, ambiguity surrounds the long-term fate of the program. A 2026 budget proposal released May 2 suggests ending the SLS and Orion programs after Artemis 3. If enacted, the mission currently under assembly may be among the final uses of the massive launch vehicle, designed to carry humans beyond low Earth orbit.

Artemis 2 is still relentlessly heading towards launch readiness. Though programming objectives are always changing, NASA’s efforts to prepare the SLS and Orion spacecraft highlight a more general aim of maintaining a continuous lunar presence—a step towards eventual Mars exploration.

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What Happens in Your Brain When You Read? New Study Maps the Reading Mind

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What Happens in Your Brain When You Read? New Study Maps the Reading Mind

Scientists concluded in a recent research published in April 2025 in Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews provides an in-depth look into how our brain understands the written language. The study has been conducted by researchers at the Max Planck Institute for Human Cognitive and Brain Sciences. The findings of this research have been derived from 163 neuroimaging studies to understand the neural mechanisms behind reading in depth. This comprehensive analysis has shown how different areas of the brain work in synchronisation, mainly the left-hemispheric regions and the cerebellum, to process different written content.

How the Brain Handles Letters to Full Texts

Sabrina Turker, Philip Kuhnke, Gesa Hartwigsen and Beatrice Fumagalli, the researchers involved in the study, found that specific brain areas get activated based on the type of reading. Researchers found that the left occipital cortex’s single cluster was activated after reading letters, whereas words, sentences and paragraphs activated the left hemisphere. While reading pseudo words, unique areas were involved, which has shown the inability of the brain to find the difference between the language that is known and the unknown.

Silent vs. Aloud Reading: What’s the Difference?

A major discovery in this research is the difference between overt (aloud reading) and covert (silent reading) brain activity. Aloud reading triggers the regions linked to sound and movement, whereas silent reading involves more complex multiple-demand areas. According to the researchers, silent reading needs more mental resources than aloud reading.

Explicit vs. Implicit Reading Tasks

The study also revealed the exploration of how the brain responds to explicit reading, i.e. Silent word reading and lexical decision tasks. The former one involves stronger activation in the regions, just like the cerebellar cortices and left orbitofrontal, whereas the implicit reading activated both sides of the inferior frontal, together with insular regions.

Why This Matters

The insights from the study can help support individuals suffering from reading challenges. After knowing how silent reading reacts differently to the brain, educators and doctors can better customise the medical practices for treating disorders such as dyslexia.

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