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Most early Europeans retained dark skin, hair, and eyes until approximately 3,000 years ago, as suggested by recent genetic research. Findings indicate that lighter features only became common in Europe during the Iron Age. Although the genetic markers for lighter pigmentation first appeared around 14,000 years ago, they remained relatively rare for thousands of years. Scientists suggest that lighter skin may have provided an advantage by aiding vitamin D production in regions with lower sunlight exposure. The research was conducted through an extensive analysis of ancient DNA samples from archaeological sites across Europe and parts of Asia.

Pigmentation Variations Over Time

According to a study published on the preprint server bioRxiv, genetic material from 348 ancient individuals was examined, with samples dating back as far as 45,000 years. The oldest belonged to the Ust’-Ishim individual from western Siberia, discovered in 2008, while another well-preserved genome came from the SF12 individual, who lived in Sweden around 9,000 years ago. Despite degradation in many samples, scientists utilised probabilistic phenotype inference and the HIrisPlex-S system to reconstruct pigmentation patterns.

Silvia Ghirotto, a geneticist at the University of Ferrara and the study’s senior author, stated in an email to Live Science that while lighter skin, hair, and eyes emerged sporadically in individuals over time, dark pigmentation remained dominant in parts of Europe well into the Copper Age. Some regions continued to see frequent occurrences of darker traits until the Iron Age.

Emergence of Lighter Features

The study found that lighter eye colours first appeared between 14,000 and 4,000 years ago, primarily in Northern and Western Europe. However, individuals with dark skin and dark hair still remained prevalent during that period. The genes responsible for lighter skin emerged in Sweden around the same time but remained rare initially.

Carles Lalueza-Fox, a palaeogeneticist at Barcelona’s Institute of Evolutionary Biology, who was not involved in the study, expressed surprise at the findings. He told Live Science that the persistence of darker pigmentation in some individuals until the Iron Age was unexpected. While the study maps out the emergence of these genetic traits, the reasons for their eventual dominance remain uncertain.

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James Webb Space Telescope Reveals Stunning Hourglass Nebula LBN 483 in Unmatched Detail

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James Webb Space Telescope Reveals Stunning Hourglass Nebula LBN 483 in Unmatched Detail

A striking nebula shaped by the dynamic interactions of two young stars has been observed in unprecedented detail by the James Webb Space Telescope (JWST). The structure, identified as Lynds 483 (LBN 483), is located approximately 650 light-years away. The nebula’s intricate shape is a result of powerful outflows generated by the formation of a binary star system. As material from a collapsing molecular cloud feeds these stars, bursts of gas and dust are expelled, shaping the surrounding nebulosity into a striking hourglass-like formation. The interaction of these stellar winds and jets with surrounding matter continues to sculpt the nebula over time, providing valuable insight into the mechanisms of star formation.

Star Formation and Nebular Evolution

According to reports, the two protostars at the core of LBN 483 play a crucial role in shaping the nebula. The presence of a lower-mass companion star, identified in 2022 through observations by the Atacama Large Millimeter/submillimeter Array (ALMA), suggests complex interactions within the system. Material accreted onto the stars periodically fuels energetic outflows, which in turn crash into the surrounding gas and dust. The JWST’s infrared imaging has revealed intricate structures within these lobes, including dense pillars and shock fronts where ejected material meets older expelled gas.

Impact of Magnetic Fields on Nebular Shape

Radio observations from ALMA have detected polarised emissions from cold dust within the nebula. These emissions indicate the presence of a magnetic field, which influences the direction and structure of the outflows. The study highlights a distinct 45-degree kink in the field at a distance of approximately 1,000 astronomical units from the stars. This deviation is attributed to the migration of the secondary star over time, altering the system’s angular momentum and consequently shaping the nebular outflows.

Implications for Star Formation Studies

LBN 483 presents a unique opportunity for astronomers to study star formation outside of massive stellar nurseries such as the Orion Nebula. The nebula’s isolation allows researchers to examine the formation process without interference from external stellar activity. Findings from this study contribute to refining theoretical models of star formation by integrating real observational data into numerical simulations. Scientists continue to analyse such systems to gain a deeper understanding of how stars, including the Sun, evolved from collapsing clouds of gas billions of years ago.

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Microlightning in Water Droplets Could Explain the Origin of Life on Earth

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Microlightning in Water Droplets Could Explain the Origin of Life on Earth

Life on Earth may have emerged not from a single, dramatic lightning strike but through countless tiny electrical discharges occurring in water droplets. Research indicates that microlightning, generated by crashing waves or waterfalls, could have led to the formation of essential organic molecules. Scientists have long debated how life began, with theories suggesting that lightning interacting with early atmospheric gases may have created crucial compounds. However, new findings suggest that small electrical charges produced in water spray could have played a key role in the process, offering an alternative explanation to the widely known Miller-Urey hypothesis.

Organic Molecules Formed Without External Electricity

According to the study published in Science Advances, water droplets subjected to a mixture of gases believed to be present in Earth’s early atmosphere resulted in the formation of organic molecules. The research, led by Richard Zare, the Marguerite Blake Wilbur Professor of Natural Science at Stanford University, explored how water spray generated electrical charges capable of forming carbon-nitrogen bonds—essential for life. Postdoctoral scholars Yifan Meng and Yu Xia, along with graduate student Jinheng Xu, contributed to the study, which challenges the idea that lightning strikes were necessary to initiate the chemical reactions leading to life.

Microlightning and Chemical Reactions in Water Droplets

The research team discovered that water droplets of varying sizes developed opposite electrical charges when dispersed. Larger droplets typically carried a positive charge, while smaller ones were negatively charged. When these oppositely charged droplets came into proximity, tiny electrical sparks—termed “microlightning” by Zare—were observed. These discharges were captured using high-speed cameras, revealing flashes of energy powerful enough to drive chemical reactions.

When room-temperature water was sprayed into a gas mixture containing nitrogen, methane, carbon dioxide, and ammonia—compounds believed to be abundant on early Earth—organic molecules such as hydrogen cyanide, glycine, and uracil were produced. These findings suggest that microlightning from water droplets may have contributed significantly to the formation of life’s building blocks, without the need for large-scale lightning strikes.

A New Perspective on Life’s Origins

Zare stated in Tech Explore that water droplets in constant motion—whether crashing into rocks or dispersing into the air—could have repeatedly generated these microelectric discharges. This mechanism, he explained, may resolve challenges associated with the Miller-Urey hypothesis, which has been criticised for its reliance on infrequent lightning events over vast oceans.

Beyond its implications for the origins of life, the study also aligns with previous research from Zare’s team on the reactivity of water droplets. Prior investigations have demonstrated how divided water can spontaneously generate hydrogen peroxide and contribute to ammonia production. He emphasised that while water is often perceived as chemically passive, when broken into tiny droplets, it becomes highly reactive, capable of driving significant chemical transformations.

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NASA’s Space Station Research Aids Lunar Missions With Key Technologies

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NASA’s Space Station Research Aids Lunar Missions With Key Technologies

Scientific research aboard the International Space Station continues to contribute to lunar exploration, with recent experiments supporting advancements in space weather studies, navigation, and radiation-resistant computing. Firefly Aerospace’s Blue Ghost Mission-1 successfully landed on the Moon on 2 March 2025, carrying three experiments influenced by space station research. These include the Lunar Environment Heliospheric X-ray Imager (LEXI), the Radiation Tolerant Computer System (RadPC), and the Lunar Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS) Receiver Experiment (LuGRE). Insights from these investigations are expected to enhance future Moon missions by improving technology resilience and space-based navigation.

X-ray Studies Enhance Understanding of Space Weather

According to reports, LEXI has been designed to study Earth’s magnetosphere and its interaction with solar wind. The instrument, which operates similarly to the Neutron Star Interior Composition Explorer (NICER) mounted on the International Space Station, has been calibrated using the same X-ray star. By analysing X-rays emitted from Earth’s upper atmosphere, LEXI is expected to provide valuable data on space weather effects, which could assist in protecting future lunar infrastructure.

Radiation-Tolerant Computing Technology Tested on the Moon

As per reports, the RadPC experiment is assessing how computers can withstand and recover from radiation-related faults. Prior to deployment on Blue Ghost, a radiation-tolerant computing system was tested aboard the space station, where an algorithm was developed to detect and address potential hardware failures. RadPC has been designed to identify faulty components and repair them autonomously, with its findings anticipated to aid the development of more resilient computing systems for deep-space missions.

GNSS Signals Successfully Received on the Lunar Surface

Reports indicate that the LuGRE experiment has detected GNSS signals at an unprecedented distance from Earth. On the space station, the Navigation and Communication Testbed (NAVCOM) has been evaluating backup navigation solutions that could serve as alternatives when GNSS signals are weak or unavailable. This research is expected to contribute to the development of reliable navigation methods for future lunar missions.

The International Space Station remains integral to advancing space research, with its experiments continuing to inform and refine technologies for long-term lunar exploration.

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