Toss, Repair, or Recycle Solar Panels? How Human Behavior Affects Fate of Old Solar Panels
By 2050, there could be 80 million metric tons globally of solar photovoltaics (PV) reaching the end of their lifetime, with 10 million metric tons in the United States alone — or the weight of 30 Empire State Buildings.
To maximize the value of solar PV materials and minimize waste, there is growing interest in sustainable end-of-life PV options and establishing a circular economy for energy materials. Most research thus far has focused on how to technically and economically recycle or reuse PV materials but does not consider how social behavior factors in. By considering consumer awareness and behavior, consumers could become a part of the solution and help accelerate the adoption of circular economy approaches.
“Consumer awareness and attitude are an important piece of the puzzle that must be considered in PV circular economy research and solutions,” said Julien Walzberg, lead author of a new article titled “Role of Social Factors in Success of Solar Photovoltaic Reuse and Recycle Programs” in Nature Energy. “A solution may be technically feasible, but if there’s no incentive for consumers to do it, it won’t work.”
For the first time, Walzberg and National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL) analysts applied agent-based modeling to end-of-life PV management to understand how people make decisions about recycling or reusing PV modules — marking a major shift in how we understand the potential for circular economy strategies to be successful. As discussed in a follow-on Nature Energy article, the NREL analysis shows the importance of factoring in peer influence and attitudes toward recycling to reflect the real-world situation and accelerate circular economy strategies. The authors of the accompanying article — including Professor Martin Green of University of New South Wales, recipient of the Alternative Nobel prize in 2002 and Global Energy Prize in 2018 — make a call for all future research on circular economy strategies to consider social factors like Walzberg demonstrated for the first time.
Agent-Based Modeling of PV End-of-Life Management
Agent-based modeling represents a group of customers as “agents,” or independent decision-making entities that are trained based on data to simulate decisions made on behalf of the people they represent.
NREL’s study modeled four agents: PV owners, installers, recyclers, and manufacturers. Agents choose to repair, reuse, recycle, landfill, or store an aging PV module under different scenarios, like varying recycling costs or policies.
Based on agent decisions, the model calculates PV mass avoided in landfills and costs to society like costs for manufacturers or net revenue for recyclers and installers. The model also factors in the learning effect for module recycling, or the decrease in recycling costs due to larger volumes and technology advancement.
Today’s Conditions Do Not Encourage PV Recycling
In the baseline scenario that reflects today’s conditions, 500 gigawatts of PV are assumed to be installed in the U.S. by 2050 (compared to 104 gigawatts in 2020), generating 9.1 million metric tons of PV waste. Based on the limited information publicly available today, the authors modeled average recycling cost of $28 per module, repair at $65 per module, and landfill at $1.38 per module, where used modules are modeled to be sold at 36% of new module prices.
From 2020 to 2050 in the modeled baseline conditions, approximately 80% of modules are landfilled, 1% are reused, and 10% are recycled. With today’s material recovery rate, the recycled mass totals just 0.7 million metric tons through 2050, or approximately 8%.
“With today’s technology, PV modules are difficult to separate, and the process recovers mostly low-value materials,” Walzberg said. “Because of this, there currently isn’t enough revenue from recycling to offset the high costs, and therefore very little mass is recycled. Our model shows this could lead to a major waste problem by 2050.”
Lower Recycling Costs Increase Recycling Rate
As modeled, lower recycling costs lead to more recycled PV modules. For example, a recycling cost of $18 per module ($10 less than today’s rate) could potentially increase the recycling rate by 36% in 2050.
However, even when recycling costs are still relatively high, social influence can increase the recycling rate. When PV owners know fellow PV owners who recycle and there is general positive attitude toward recycling, the rate increases. This indicates early adopters could help set the trend for others to follow.
“The bump in recycling from social influence shows that adopting a social perspective is important to fully realize and achieve higher material recovery,” Walzberg said.
Another scenario in the study explored the potential impact of a subsidy on recycling rates. Simulations showed that substantially reducing recycling costs through subsidies could encourage recycling and lead to a virtuous circle by increasing the recycled volume, helping to drive down costs for later adopters and increasing recycling volumes more.
Higher Material Recovery an Economic Win
Today’s mechanical recycling processes for PV modules typically recover lower-quality materials that are less valuable. Emerging high-recovery recycling processes recover more valuable materials like silver, copper, and silicon that can be used again.
In scenarios with the high-recovery process, recycler cumulative net income increases by $1.3 billion in 2050. Add in higher recycling rates or lower recycling costs, and the value of recycled PV modules increases further.
Reuse Could Help Establish PV Circular Economy
Reusing PV modules shows some promise as a circular economy approach. When PV modules have longer warranties, and people perceive new and used modules as having the same value, the reuse rate increases from 1% to 23% in 2050. Because the reuse pathway competes with recycling, the recycling rate decreases to below 1% in that scenario. However, the overall landfill avoidance rate still increases. Moreover, even when nearly all limitations on PV reuse are removed, the supply of reused modules can only meet one-third of growing PV demand.
“While it is possible to reuse a PV module, it doesn’t have the same power efficiency and life expectancy the second time around, so there are limitations to focusing on reuse as the main PV circular economy strategy,” Walzberg said. “Reuse and recycling strategies can be developed in concert. Understanding this interplay is important to move toward solutions that avoid landfilling while maximizing renewable energy generation.”
Learn more about NREL’s energy analysis research.
Article courtesy of NREL.
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Germany’s largest offshore wind farm hit a big milestone: The first turbine at EnBW’s He Dreiht project has produced its first kilowatt-hour of electricity and sent it into the grid.
More turbines are expected to come online over the coming weeks. European energy provider EnBW has already installed 27 of the wind farm’s 64 turbines, all of which are scheduled to be commissioned by summer 2026.
Peter Heydecker, EnBW board member for Sustainable Generation Infrastructure, described the November 25 milestone as a “significant moment for EnBW.” With 960 megawatts (MW) of total capacity, He Dreiht is now Germany’s largest offshore wind farm.
Vestas supplied the 15 MW turbines, marking their world debut. Nils de Baar, president of Vestas Northern and Central Europe, said the giant turbine’s technology sets a new standard for offshore wind. “Its efficiency and performance enable a significant increase in energy yield per turbine.”
Just one rotation of the 15 MW turbine’s rotor can power the equivalent of four households for a day. The hub stands 142 meters (466 feet) tall, and the rotor’s 236-meter (774-foot) diameter sweeps a 43,742-square-meter (10.8-acre) area — roughly the size of six football fields. To put the scale into perspective, EnBW’s first offshore project, Baltic 1 in 2010, used 2.3 MW turbines.
EnBW wrapped up the wind farm’s internal cabling in August. Those lines connect all the turbines and feed into a converter platform operated by transmission system operator TenneT. That’s where the power is collected, converted from AC to DC, and sent to shore through two high-voltage DC cables.
Once complete, He Dreiht will generate enough electricity to power about 1.1 million households. The project is being built without state funding and sits roughly 85 kilometers (53 miles) northwest of Borkum and 110 kilometers (68 miles) west of Heligoland. EnBW’s offshore office in Hamburg is coordinating the build.
A partner group made up of Allianz Capital Partners, AIP, and Norges Bank Investment Management owns 49.9% of the project. Total investment comes in at around €2.4 billion.
Read more: China’s surge pushes global wind toward fastest growth ever
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BYD tried crushing its $180K luxury SUV with a 2-ton tree and it barely left a mark [Video]
![BYD tried crushing its $180K luxury SUV with a 2-ton tree and it barely left a mark [Video]](https://i0.wp.com/electrek.co/wp-content/uploads/sites/3/2025/07/BYD-ultra-luxury-EV-Europe.jpeg?resize=1200,628&quality=82&strip=all&ssl=1)
The Yangwang U8L is among the most expensive Chinese vehicles, starting at about $180,000. To prove it’s built for just about anything, BYD dropped a 2-ton tree on it, three times, and the ultra-luxury pretty much brushed it off.
BYD drops a tree on its ultra-luxury SUV during testing
BYD launched the Yangwang U8L in September, a long-wheelbase version of the U8 off-road SUV. The U8 was first introduced in September 2023 as the first vehicle from BYD’s ultra-luxury sub-brand, Yangwang.
Yangwang is a new energy vehicle (NEV) brand that sells high-end plug-in hybrids (PHEVs) and 100% battery electric (BEV) vehicles as BYD expands into new segments.
The U8L is Yangwang’s fourth vehicle, following the U8, U9, and U7. It’s available in China with a quad-motor extended-range electric vehicle (EREV) system, delivering a CLTC range of 200 km (124 miles) on battery power alone.
A 2.0-liter turbocharged gasoline engine serves as a generator, delivering a combined CLTC range of 1,160 km (720 miles).
Measuring 5,400 mm in length, 2,049 mm in width, and 1,921 mm in height, the Yangwang U8L is even bigger than the Rolls-Royce Cullinan and Range Rover Long Wheelbase.
BYD’s ultra-luxury SUV is priced from 1.28 million yuan ($180,000), making it one of the most expensive models from a Chinese brand.
It may look pretty, but the Yangwang U8L is built for far more than just good looks. Like the U8, the long-wheelbase version is equipped with advanced features such as emergency float mode, which allows it to float on water for up to 30 minutes, tank turns, crab walking, and more.
To prove its durability, BYD engineers put the luxury SUV through the paces, dropping a massive 2-ton tree on it, not once, but three times.
During the final drop, the company said the maximum impact energy reached 50.4 kJ, or about 37,200 lb-ft. After three consecutive drops, the Yangwang U8L barely even got a scratch. The body structure remained intact, the door still opened, the columns didn’t bend, and the vehicle could even drive like normal.
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The White House will formally announce its planned hike in US fuel costs by $23 billion tomorrow, according to Reuters.
Since the beginning of this year, the occupants of the White House have been on a mission to raise costs for Americans.
This mission has encompassed many different moves, most notably through unwise tariffs.
But another effort has focused on changing policy in a way that will raise fuel costs for Americans, adding to already-high energy prices.
The specific rollback tomorrow focuses on a rule passed under President Biden which would save Americans $23 billion in fuel costs by requiring higher fuel economy from auto manufacturers. By making cars use less fuel on average, Americans would not only save money on fuel, but reduce fuel demand which means that prices would go down overall.
The effort to roll back this rule was initially announced on the first day that Sean Duffy started squatting in the head office of the Department of Transportation. Duffy notably earned his transportation expertise by being a contestant on Road Rules: All Stars, a reality TV travel game show.
Then in June, Duffy formally reinterpreted the Corporate Average Fuel Economy (CAFE) standard, claiming falsely that his department does not have authority to regulate fuel economy.
Republicans in Congress even got into effort to raise your fuel costs, as part of their ~$4 trillion giveaway to wealthy elites included a measure to make CAFE rules irrelevant by setting penalties for violating them to $0. In addition, it eliminated a number of other energy efficiency and domestic advanced manufacturing incentives.
Duffy’s department then told automakers that they would not face any fines retroactively to 2022, which saved the automakers (mostly Stellantis) a few hundred million dollars and cost American consumers billions in fuel costs.
Tomorrow, Duffy is expected to make an announcement formally changing CAFE rules, lowering the required fuel economy for 2022-2031 model year vehicles, even despite all of the other changes in trying to make the rules unenforceable. The theory behind this would be to make it harder to later enforce the rules, and to allow automakers to get off with more pollution, and to increase fuel demand and fuel prices for longer until a real government returns to power and starts doing its job to regulate pollution.
We don’t know the specifics yet of what exactly the announcement will entail, but given the general trend of recent announcements, it will likely be a full rollback of the improvements to the rule made by President Biden.
Tomorrow’s announcement is expected to be attended by executives from the Big Three American automakers – GM, Ford, and Stellantis (formerly Chrysler).
Their presence on stage suggests that their prior commitments to energy efficiency and electrification were not serious, as they are now joining in an effort to increase your fuel costs, just to save themselves a few engineering dollars on having to provide something other than the disgusting, deadly land yachts that are a blight on the nation’s roads and are murdering pedestrians at a 50-year high.
Tomorrow’s announcement is just one many efforts currently being undertaken by executive departments to try to raise your fuel costs.
One of the largest is the EPA’s attempt to delete the “Endangerment Finding,” the government’s recognition of the scientific fact that climate change is dangerous to humans. The EPA is undertaking this effort so that it can then eliminate other rules intended to reduce pollution, with the goal of making you more beholden to fossil fuels.
Even the Energy Department’s own numbers, signed off on by oil shill Chris Wright, say that changes sought by the White House will increase gas prices by $.76/gal.
Like most other governmental changes, today’s change will likely go up for public comment, as required by the Administrative Procedures Act. We’ll let you know when they do.
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