A recent study indicates that water on the lunar surface may come from the solar wind. Water—of most importance as rocket fuel—is present in lunar surface dust, or regolith, produced by meteoroids and charged particles impacting lunar rock. The researchers discovered that several of this graph had evidence of dampness, with between 200 and 300 parts per million of water and the molecule hydroxyl. The water and hydroxyl in the lunar graph were both low in deuterium, suggesting their hydrogen came from the sun, likely delivered to the moon by solar winds.

When the hydrogen particles interact with oxygen present in lunar surface rocks, water molecules arise. The results suggest that other airless bodies in the solar system may also have water on their surfaces, therefore highlighting the possibility of finding such water on the surface of other such objects.

NASA Confirms Solar Wind May Create Water on the Moon’s Surface

As per the report, it is claimed that scientists have hypothesised—since the 1960s—that the Sun is the source of elements generating water on the Moon. The idea is that water molecules would be produced by a chemical reaction set off by a stream of charged particles—the solar wind— slamming onto the lunar surface. NASA-led researchers have confirmed this prediction in the most realistic lab simulation of this process yet.

Given much of the water on the Moon is believed to be frozen in continuously shadowed areas at the poles, the result affects NASA’s Artemis astronaut activities near the South Pole.

Solar Wind Can Create Water on the Moon, NASA Lab Test Confirms

Constantly flowing from the sun, solar wind is mostly composed of protons—nuclei of hydrogen atoms deprived of their electrons. Our planet’s magnetic shield and atmosphere help most of the solar particles to avoid reaching the surface of Earth. But the Moon has no such protection. As computer models and lab experiments have shown, when protons smash into the Moon’s surface, which is made of a dusty and rocky material called regolith, they collide with electrons and recombine to form hydrogen atoms.

Scientists have discovered proof of both hydroxyl and water molecules beneath the moon’s surface. These molecules leave a chemical imprint that interacts with light on the regolith. Generally speaking, “water” refers to either one or a mix of both molecules since hydroxyl and water cannot be differentiated right now.

NASA astronaut Yeo and colleagues examined Apollo lunar samples using a customised tool employing two samples worth of dust. Their little particle accelerator battered the dust to create a copy of solar wind spanning many days.

A new study has found that the private trade in Tyrannosaurus rex fossils is hampering researchers’ understanding of the iconic Cretaceous predator. Thomas Carr, an associate professor of biology at Carthage College, found that there are now more scientifically valuable T. rex specimens in private or commercial ownership than in public museums and other public trusts. The private market is likely to be an underestimate, as commercial companies are discovering twice as many T. rex fossils as museums.

Private Fossil Trade Threatens T. rex Research Progress

Carr concentrated on “scientifically informative” specimens—heads, skeletons, and isolated bones—to understand exactly how the private market sets the limitations for researchers able to obtain T. rex fossils. The most valued dinosaur sold in 2024 was a Stegosaurus, which sold for $44.6 million ; Carr wants to bring attention to his work so that other researchers may investigate how the commercial market is influencing other extinct species, including the T. rex.

As per the study, it is claimed that the private trade in Tyrannosaurus rex fossils is compromising knowledge of the famous Cretaceous predator. Director of the Carthage Institute of Palaeontology in Wisconsin and associate professor of biology at Carthage College, Thomas Carr, discovered that private or commercial ownership of T. rex specimens currently numbers more than those in public museums and other public trusts. The loss of juvenile and subadult specimens is especially worrisome, as the early growth stages of T. rex are bedevilled by a poor fossil record, and the loss of them carries the heaviest scientific cost.

Study Reveals T. rex Fossils Vanishing into Private Hands

Carr published his findings, titled “Tyrannosaurus rex: An endangered species,” in the journal Palaeontologia Electronica. He targeted “scientifically informative” specimens, such as skulls, skeletons, and isolated bones, to better understand the private market’s impact on the number of T. rex fossils available to researchers. He found 61 specimens in public trusts overall and 71 specimens—including 14 juveniles—in private ownership.

Driven by the luxury fossil market spanning all types of dinosaurs, private sales of dinosaurs outside of T. rex, as he has done with the T. rex, and the most expensive auction ever for a stegosaurus for $44.6 million in 2024, Carr believes his effort will motivate other academics to investigate how the commercial market is impacting other ancient animals.

For years there has been a toxic, emotion-driven debate over gender and sex in this country. Today came clarity.

This was the legal crescendo in a saga that has rolled through the courts for more than half a decade.

It impacts half of the population in England, Scotland and Wales.

Five judges at the highest civil court in the land were unanimous: the legal definition of a woman is based on biological sex.

It essentially means holders of gender recognition certificates are not women in the eyes of the law.

Follow live: Judges rule on definition of ‘woman’

Without getting bogged down in the legal technicalities, this whole case centred on two pieces of Westminster legitimation, meaning the Equality Act 2010 and the Gender Recognition Act 2004.

Those with a gender recognition certificate (GRC) have lived for the last 20 years on the basis that the document they possess changes their sex for “all purposes”.

Later anti-discrimination laws, the Equality Act, stated trans people could be excluded from women-only spaces in some circumstances.

Women’s rights campaigners took the case to court to seek clarity after the Scottish government tried to include trans women in quotas for gender balance on public sector boards.

This definitive decision today in London has immediate real-world consequences.

Judges were clear this wasn’t a victory for either side, as trans people will still be protected against discrimination.

But trans leaders say this calls into question their very identity – and to say they are hugely disappointed is an understatement.

One trans woman told me she was “gutted” and that this was an “attack” on her rights.

Campaign group For Women Scotland gathered in Edinburgh to watch a live stream of the proceedings and claimed victory. There were tears and cheers as they watched the judges deliver their judgment.

They say this gives absolute clarity about who can enter single-sex spaces like sports clubs, hospital wards and prisons across Britain.

Sir Keir Starmer’s government issued a statement saying this brings “confidence” and that they remain fully in favour of single-sex spaces.

John Swinney, Scotland’s first minister, had a more muted reaction, simply saying his government “accepts” the ruling.

In 2022, the SNP government under Nicola Sturgeon passed laws making it easier for people to change their gender. It was ultimately blocked by the UK government and has been sitting on a shelf getting dusty ever since.

Since coming to power a year ago, Mr Swinney has tried to distance himself from the gender politics of the past few years given how much it bogged down his predecessors.

There was an excruciating exchange with journalists last year when he was asked whether a man can get pregnant. He delivered a blunt “no” in response despite his lawyers arguing almost the opposite in court.

There was the row over the double rapist being housed in a women’s prison and an employment tribunal is currently hearing the case of the nurse who complained about getting changed in front of a transgender doctor.

With a Holyrood election looming next year, it is completely conceivable that any suggestion of resurrecting Scotland’s controversial gender reforms is over in light of today’s court decision.

Mr Swinney won’t be taking questions today, I’m told, but it will be top of the list for his next appearance.