By Dr. Priyom Bose, Ph.D. Reviewed by Danielle Ellis, B.Sc.
What happens after HIV infection?
Evolution of HIV diagnostic assays
Conclusions
References
Further reading
Acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS) is caused by the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) that attacks the body’s immune system, making it vulnerable to all infections. One of the major concerns of the early AIDS epidemic that began in 1981 was the lack of proper diagnostic measures to identify infected individuals.1 Since the development of the first HIV diagnostic assay in 1985, scientists have continued to improve diagnostic accuracy, detection speed, and cost.
Image Credit: Hanna Karpiak/Shutterstock.com What happens after HIV infection?
The immune system produces antibodies after encountering harmful foreign substances or antigens. HIV infects the vital cells associated with immunity, such as macrophages, helper T cells, and dendritic cells, and disrupts their function. The three important HIV antigens are p24, gp 41, and gp 120.2
HIV is a slow-replicating retrovirus that is transmitted through sexual intercourse, sharing an infected needle, or by blood transfer.3 After HIV infection, the viral load cannot be measured immediately due to low plasma load. Typically, the viral RNA can be measured within 10 to 12 days after infection.4
Antibodies to p24 and gp 41 are the first serological markers used to detect HIV infection. IgG antibodies appear approximately three weeks after infection. In the majority of HIV-infected individuals, HIV antibodies appear to circulate within 1 to 2 months of the infection. However, in a few cases, it may take up to six months to appear at a detectable level.5 Evolution of HIV diagnostic assays
Over the years, scientists have developed many immunoassays and nucleic acid amplification tests (NAATs) to accurately and high-throughput HIV diagnosis. These tests are broadly divided into two categories, namely, screening and confirmatory tests. Typically, HIV tests are performed on blood, oral fluids, or urine samples.6
HIV screening is performed by various immunoassays that focus on detecting IgG antibodies against HIV-1 antigens in the serum. Techniques such as Western blot, line immunoassay (LIA), and recombinant immunoblot are used as confirmatory tests.7 Some of the important HIV diagnostic assays are discussed below: Serological testing for HIV
In the mid-1980s, simple serological tests for HIV antibodies were developed based on culture-derived viral antigen preparation.7 These tests enabled HIV diagnosis and assessed blood and blood product supplies. Since the early assays, various serological assays have been developed that aided simple/rapid testing, high-throughput screening, confirmatory tests, incidence determination, and epidemiological surveillance. Since its first development, five generations of enzyme immunoassays (EIAs) have emerged based on varied antigen preparations and detection chemistries.8
First-generation assays: The first-generation EIAs detect IgG antibodies from antigens derived from whole viral lysates of HIV-positive cultures. Since crude antigen lysate contains impurities, this method exhibited reduced specificity and high false positivity. In contrast, immunofluorescence assays or Western blotting (WB) have shown higher specificity and lower false positivity.
Second-generation assays: Second-generation assays involve the use of recombinant proteins or synthetic peptides derived from the immunodominant regions (IDR) of HIV-1 proteins and gp36 of HIV-2, which increases sensitivity and decreases false positivity.
Third-generation assays: Third-generation assays, including the Genetic Systems HIV-1/HIV-2 Plus O EIA, use a variety of antigens to detect HIV-1 and -2 antibodies in the serum. A major advantage of third-generation sandwich format assays is their ability to detect HIV-1 IgM antibodies early, enabling quicker HIV diagnosis.
Fourth-generation assays: The fourth-generation EIAs, including the Abbott Architect HIV Ag/Ab Combo assay, utilize fully automated chemiluminescent microparticle technology that can instantaneously identify antibodies to HIV-1 and HIV-2 and HIV-1 p24 antigen. This technique has further allowed early HIV diagnosis. Other advantages of fourth-generation high-throughput assays are their capacity to perform more than 150 tests per hour and their ability to test specimens immediately upon arrival and generate results within 30 minutes. These assays are suitable for facilities, such as blood banks, that handle high volumes of blood samples.
Fifth-generation assays: Fifth-generation assays, such as the Bio-Rad BioPlex 2200 HIV Ag-Ab assay, use magnetic beads coated with p24 monoclonal antibodies and epitopes specific for HIV-1 and HIV-2. This type of assay has a major advantage in that it can confirm HIV infection in a single test. Interested in Assay Kits? Explore Equipment Here
Despite the advancements in EIA assays, the challenges associated with the generation of false positive results persist. Therefore, EIA-reactive specimen is typically retested with supplemental tests, such as Western Blot. Rapid diagnostic tests Related StoriesSweden exceeds UNAIDS HIV goals but faces new challengesNutrition's pivotal role in combating tuberculosis: addressing N-AIDS for better outcomes
The first HIV rapid test was available in the early 1990s. It determined an individual's serostatus before surgery, maternal labor/delivery, and organ transplant. Rapid diagnostics is based on immunochromatographic technology that uses blood from finger pricks to assess HIV status. 9 This test can provide results in less than 30 minutes and can be used in point-of-care (POC) settings. Since this test presents both false positive and negative results, it is essential to confirm the findings with laboratory-based HIV assays.
The main advantage of this technique is that any non-laboratory staff can perform it in a primary health care center. Even though decentralization of HIV diagnostic services has increased HIV test service in remote areas, it has been challenged by the lack of national guidelines, waste disposal, inventory management, and quality assurance (QA) monitoring.10
HIV self-testing, based on rapid testing methods, has allowed individuals who would otherwise refrain from testing in fear of discrimination to perform the test privately and start proper intervention. The World Health Organization (WHO) has prequalified several HIV rapid tests for HIV self-testing, including the Insti HIV-1/HIV-2 antibody tests and the Oraquick rapid HIV-1/2 antibody test.10 Nucleic acid test (NAT)
The NAT identifies HIV nucleic acid, i.e., either RNA or proviral DNA, in the blood sample. This test is based on the principles of polymerase chain reaction (PCR), nucleic acid sequence-based amplification, or ligase chain reaction.11 This test has proved to be vital in situations when an antibody against HIV is absent in serum. NAT is also performed in newborns of HIV-infected mothers. Unlike other assays, this test can detect HIV even after recent or possible exposure to the virus. Furthermore, NAT can quantify viral load.
Revolutions in Infectious Disease Testing Conclusions
The advancements in HIV diagnostic assays have played a vital role in identifying, staging, and monitoring infected individuals, even when they are under antiretroviral therapy. These assays have played an important role in surveillance and identification of transmission hot spots. Extraordinary progress in HIV testing methodologies has not only reduced false positives but decreased assessment time as well. References Sharp PM, Hahn BH. Origins of HIV and the AIDS pandemic. Cold Spring Harb Perspect Med. 2011;1(1):a006841. doi: 10.1101/cshperspect.a006841. Foster JE., et al. Viruses as Pathogens: Animal Viruses, With Emphasis on Human Viruses. Viruses. 2018; 157-187. doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-811257-1.00007-3 Dasgupta A, Wahed. Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) and hepatitis testing. Clinical Chemistry, Immunology and Laboratory Quality Control (Second Edition). 2021; 513-533. doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-815960-6.00015-7 Konrad BP, et al. On the duration of the period between exposure to HIV and detectable infection. Epidemics. 2017; 20, 73-83. doi.org/10.1016/j.epidem.2017.03.002 Davis LE. Acute viral meningitis and encephalitis. Infections of the Nervous System, 1987; 156-176. doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-407-02293-5.50014-3 Pant PN. Oral fluid-based rapid HIV testing: issues, challenges and research directions. Expert Review of Molecular Diagnostics. 2007; 7 (4), 325-328, DOI: 10.1586/14737159.7.4.325 Abdullah DM, et al. The contemporary immunoassays for HIV diagnosis: a concise overview. Asian Biomed (Res Rev News). 2023;17(1):3-12. doi: 10.2478/abm-2023-0038. Alexander TS. Human Immunodeficiency Virus Diagnostic Testing: 30 Years of Evolution. Clin Vaccine Immunol. 2016;23(4):249-53. doi: 10.1128/CVI.00053-16. Aidoo S, et al. Suitability of a rapid immunochromatographic test for detection of antibodies to human immunodeficiency virus in Ghana, West Africa. J Clin Microbiol. 2001;39(7):2572-5. doi: 10.1128/JCM.39.7.2572-2575.2001. Parekh BS, et al. Diagnosis of Human Immunodeficiency Virus Infection. Clin Microbiol Rev. 2018;32(1):e00064-18. doi: 10.1128/CMR.00064-18. Garrett, P. E. Quality control for nucleic acid tests: Common ground and special issues. Journal of Clinical Virology. 2001; 20(1-2), 15-21. doi.org/10.1016/S1386-6532(00)00150-5
Further ReadingAll HIV ContentThe Economic Impacts of AIDSRecent Advancements in Treating HIV
The 2025 Can-Am Origin electric motorcycle is the pinnacle of fun, just as long as your good time can fit into 69 miles of riding between charges. What it lacks in long-distance range, it makes up for in versatility, rugged style, and instant torque that’s ready for the road and trail. Each twist of the throttle delivers immediate electric propulsion. Its futuristic design and stealthy motor hum make the Origin a dual-sport machine pulled from tomorrow that wonderfully celebrates Can-Am’s two-wheeled heritage of decades past. I also spent some time on the road with the more approachable Can-Am Pulse, a standard street bike with a slight range advantage.
Can-Am style and comfort through technology
The Can-Am Origin is unlike any electric motorbike that has entered my garage. Its tall stance, 21-inch front and 18-inch rear wheels, and high ground clearance practically beg to be taken off your routine street routes. Can-Am simultaneously delivers an infotainment system on a dual-sport bike that, respectfully, makes much more expensive electric motorcycles look like tech dinosaurs in comparison.
The Origin’s dashboard has specs that every electric motorcycle company should copy. Equipping this system to an electric dual-sport feels like a total luxury. The Origin features a giant 10.25-inch color touchscreen with BRP Connect and a clean user interface that automatically switches between light and dark mode and adjusts brightness. In addition to a digital speedometer, you can quickly switch between ride modes, view battery status, check estimated range, and more.
Ride modes include Normal, Sport, Rain, Eco, two different Off-Road modes. You can toggle traction control and fine-tune front and rear regenerative braking independently, each with Off, Mid, and Max settings. Controls are accessible via the touchscreen when parked or through handlebar-mounted thumb controls while riding.
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The UI adapts to show either large gauges or a split between speedometer and infotainment applets. Bluetooth connects the bike and your phone, and Can-Am has included built-in wifi for over-the-air software updates. These are the kinds of features you’d expect on a premium electric motorcycle in 2025, but they’re not guaranteed.
For iPhone users, there’s Apple CarPlay integration. Two caveats: first, the system uses USB-A instead of USB-C, so newer iPhones will require an adapter or a USB-A to USB-C cable that supports data, not just charging. Second, it only supports wired CarPlay, not wireless, despite the bike having both wifi and Bluetooth radios onboard.
Those two complaints aside, the CarPlay integration is next-level. The touchscreen is responsive when parked, and everything remains fully controllable through the handlebar controls while riding. Access to apps like Maps, Music, Messages, and Phone while on the move is a real convenience. There are also motorcycle- and EV-specific apps with CarPlay are right at home on the Can-Am system.
There are no built-in speakers, so Can-Am relies on Bluetooth audio outputs. The setup is clever, supporting two output channels: one for the rider and one for the passenger helmet comms systems. I experimented by tossing a Bluetooth speaker onto the handlebars and was surprised to find it worked well in sub 50 mph environments as an open-air audio solution.
My only real hardware gripe on a bike that otherwise outshines much of its competition is the lack of self-canceling turn signals. Not every bike has them, but every bike that lacks them is missing out. There’s nothing less cool than riding around with your blinker still flashing. Fortunately, the dash clearly displays active signals. Still, I initially thought the right indicator light on the dash wasn’t working until I realized a single cable runs directly in front of it from my seated position. It’s a small, oddly specific problem that may be specific to my loaner bike, but I can’t quite position the cable differently.
Overall, I give the look and tech a 9.75 out of 10 for delivering both style and features that I actually want and use.
How the Origin feels to ride
At 5’10” with a 30-inch inseam, I find the Origin’s seat height tall yet correct for a dual-sport bike. Throwing a leg over feels a bit like saddling up on a horse, and once I’m on, it’s immediately comfortable. I can straddle the bike confidently, with my left foot planted on the ground and the other hovering around the rear brake. Any taller, and it might feel like a stretch; any shorter, and the ride position wouldn’t feel as commanding. The elevated stance provides a clear, confident view of the road or trail ahead, and the headlight system works adequately. It sets the Origin apart from the lower, more compact feel of traditional street bikes.
With this bike, Can-Am delivers an awesome mix of rugged reality and futuristic aesthetic. The Origin’s angular black-and-white bodywork and tall riding position regularly invokes the feeling of a stormtrooper hovering through the moon forest of Endor on a speeder bike. That particular vibe is especially strong at speed, where the elevated stance and electric torque make it feel like you’re gliding just above the terrain. At lower speeds, the illusion shifts. The stealthy motor hum fades behind the subtle roll of tires on pavement, creating a sensation much like quietly cruising up on a skateboard. It’s stealthy, smooth, and serene.
In terms of performance, the Origin tops out at 79 mph for me, providing plenty of speed for highway rides. Can-Am rates the 0-60 mph acceleration at 4.3 seconds, but frankly this bike feels like it might toss you overboard if you push it that quickly. Can-Am estimates range of up to 90 city miles and 71 mixed environment miles. On one test ride, I ran the battery from 100 percent to 1 percent over the course of 2.3 hours, covering 58.7 miles at an average speed of 24 mph, according to the bike stats.
According to my stats, it was many more hours of fun in the sun with a break for lunch at the park by the water in between riding sessions. That ride was done entirely in Sport mode with regenerative braking turned off, and it returned an average energy consumption of 9 miles per kilowatt-hour. It’s a solid showing for an electric dual-sport, especially considering the aggressive mode and lack of regen for the most reactive and relaxed ride.
Sometimes I love the feel of regenerative braking on electric cars and motorcycles. It can add to the feeling of responsiveness. I found regen on this bike to feel a bit more tight and underpowered for my liking, but it’s there as an option for extending range. With regen turned off entirely, the Origin felt significantly more loose and natural to ride. On the Origin I consistently opted to leave both front and rear regen off. We’ll see how the Pulse feels when I test that model next.
I must have logged over 500 miles across four weeks with the Origin. The lasting impression is that when you gain muscle memory for how the bike responds to throttle spin and body movement, riding the Can-Am Origin feels like playing an amplified electric guitar. Every incremental finger and palm positioning has a result, and when you find your rhythm, suddenly you’re creating music.
The other piece of the Can-Am Origin experience that I didn’t anticipate is the conversational aspect. Electric vehicles are still novel to many, and electric motorcycles are an absolute enigma to most. “Can it get wet?” is still the classic question that many ask. But from day one to day 28 of test riding the Can-Am Origin, it was the brand itself that got people asking me about the bike.
My takeaway is that people have a real affinity for the Can-Am brand as well as a nostalgia for the days of two-wheeled Can-Am motorbikes. When they learn that Can-Am is back on two wheels in the form of a bad-ass looking electric dual-sport motorcycle, people react like they just met a the much younger version of a celebrity in their home town. It’s a fun thing to experience.
Can-Am has earned its place as an electric motorcycle brand to consider
The Can-Am Origin is an incredibly thoughtful and fun take on what an electric dual-sport can be. It pairs rugged styling with a high-tech, feature-rich interface, offers plenty of real-world performance, and never stops turning heads while doing it without trying. From its futuristic design and surprisingly refined touchscreen to the tall, confident riding position and intuitive handling, the Origin is a complete package, so long as your expectations around electric motorcycle range are in check.
Priced starting at $14,999, the Origin slots in competitively against other premium electric motorcycles, though it leans more toward adventure and off-road versatility than urban street performance. It doesn’t quite reach the power or fast-charging capability of more premium priced machines, yet it undercuts in price and adds very useful touches like Apple CarPlay, OTA updates, and dual regen tuning.
If money were no object, I’d gladly keep one in the garage. It’s just flat-out fun to ride. From quick errands and joyrides to weekend backroad escapes, the Origin is a thrill machine that leaves you smiling between rides. Can-Am has a huge selection of first-party accessories to customize your bike as well. This configuration above makes me drool.
Range will be the limiter on machines like this for a while, and while around 70 miles between charges is enough for plenty of use cases, it still has to be a part of the conversation when talking recommendations. But here’s the thing: despite that limitation, electric motorcycles are a ton of fun right now. And if you’ve got either a high pain tolerance for early adoption or healthy access to good charging infrastructure, you can absolutely push them further.
The Origin is compatible with both Level 1 (standard wall outlet) and Level 2 (240V) charging, but not Level 3 DC fast charging. Can-Am rates Level 2 charging at 0 to 80% in 1.5 hours and 0 to 100% in 3.5 hours. In practice, that translates to plugging in and waiting a few hours between fun sessions. For some riders, that’s no big deal, especially if spending time at your destination is part of the trip.
I certainly don’t live along the great electric freeway of California, but my coastal stretch of highway in South Mississippi is populated with electric charging stops.
In my testing, I used the Can-Am Origin for a roundtrip airport commute from home in Ocean Springs, MS to Gulfport, MS, and back. The airport was outside of the travel-there-and-back-without-charging range, but free charging infrastructure at the airport parking garage made it no problem. I rode there, parked, charged during my trip, and returned from the other side of the country to a full battery. So yes, it’s capable of handling local duties. But if long range is central to your riding lifestyle, it’s something to plan around. I think lower speeds and paid charging solutions along the way would allow me to reach New Orleans and return home, but I haven’t set out on that path with this bike.
The Origin isn’t perfect, but it’s arguably best in its category, well-executed, and just damn cool to experience. Can-Am absolutely executed on creating a great electric motorcycle experience despite not being solely focused on EVs or two-wheeled machines.
Can-Am Pulse experience
After 600+ miles on the Can-Am Origin, I had the chance to put some miles on a 2025 Can-Am Pulse electric motorcycle. My key takeaways? Both are excellent electric motorcycles with equally great CarPlay integration. The Pulse is more approachable with a low riding position and slightly more range. The larger storage capacity is also appreciated compared to the somewhat tight space on the Origin.
Pulse ’73 edition with two-up configuration
If I were choosing which to purchase without extensive riding experience, the Can-Am Pulse is absolutely the bike I would gravitate toward. It’s just a great standard street bike with awesome technology at a competitive price.
Above is a look at the redesigned CarPlay experience coming in September 2025 to iPhone in iOS 26, as seen on the Can-Am Pulse display. The new design flexibility makes CarPlay look more at home next to Can-Am’s UI that always appears on a third of the display. Since Can-Am supports CarPlay, the infotainment system will receive free upgrades as Apple enhances the iPhone-powered feature.
Can-Am also supports free over-the-air software updates to the bike itself. Updates are downloaded over wifi and installed using the built-in system on the bike. No visits to the dealership or firmware updates over USB drives required.
Find more about Can-Am Origin and Pulse electric motorcycles here.
Electrek’s Take
I still think the Can-Am Pulse is the easier recommendation for most people, and you can kit it out as much as the Origin. Yet after around a month with each bike, I can’t help but think more about the Pulse. Can-Am really built a fun machine with that bike, especially with its commanding riding position and rugged style.
I would love to see a version with Level 3 charging speeds and greater range to expand the road trip potential, but both machines are super if your commute or leisure route works with the specs.
For now, Can-Am has delivered more than any other electric motorcycle maker when it comes to a giant display with CarPlay integration, attention-grabbing style, and options for two different riding preferences.
There’s something about the joy of playing around with Tonka trucks in a sandbox that men really never grow out of. Sure, we grow up, get real jobs, and most of us never take the toys back out of the dusty, long-forgotten box. But the desire is still there. And if you gave just about any former boy and reluctant adult the option, I’d be dollars to donuts they’d gladly play around with the life-sized version of their childhood construction toys in a heartbeat.
If that sounds like fun, then I’ve got good news for you. I just found the coolest grown-up toy construction vehicle and it’s unlike anything you’ve seen before. I’d argue that it slots in nicely as a perfect example of some of the coolest and weirdest things you can find from China’s endless supply of innovative EVs. So, for your viewing pleasure, I submit this week’s Awesomely Weird Alibaba Electric Vehicle of the Week: the Octo-dumper!
I really don’t know how to describe this vehicle. I’ve been at a loss for words before in this column, but at least there’s usually a general class of vehicle that these things fit into.
In this case, I’m hesitant to call it a dump truck – partly because it appears to be all dump and no truck.
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It’s remote-controlled, so you could call it an RC vehicle, but the fact that I’ve seen cars smaller than this rig makes me hesitant to lump it in with the remote-controlled toys.
Then there’s the 8×8 setup here. The last time I saw an eight-wheeled vehicle like this was, ironically, it was a mobile crane that was unloading one of my containers full of fun Alibaba construction equipment. Wow, I didn’t expect to come full circle there so quickly.
But despite being unable to quite classify this dumper, I still love everything about it, and I kind of want one.
Measuring around six feet long (197 cm), it seems capable of carrying a fairly large load. They rate it for 2,200 lb (1,000 kg) of cargo, and it looks every bit ready for it.
The top speed of 9 mph (15 km/h) might not hold up when fully laden, but this isn’t exactly a vehicle built for speed. Or comfort, for that matter. It’s built for by-god gettin’ stuff done! And with a claimed 5.4 kWh of battery capacity, it’s going to be quietly hauling your junk around for a good long time before it needs a recharge.
The cargo bed appears to have the classic pickup truck tailgate in the rear, though it also adds a pair of side gates like an old Corvair 95 Rampside pickup, except that the side gates run the full length. Finally, the front also has a tailgate–err, frontgate? Basically, it’s gates all around to turn this thing into a rolling flatbed capable of carrying just about any oversized junk you can think of!
Just don’t start tipping it up while you’ve got all those gates down or you might lose your load. That’s right, don’t forget that this is also a dumper! Not just a transporter around a job site, you can unload your dirt, mulch, gravel, friends, or whatever you carry in here with the push of a button.
Now I’m not exactly sure what I’d do with one of these if I owned one, but I’m sure I could find plenty of uses. You never realize what you can do with an octo-dumper until you own one, and then it’s suddenly like, “How did I ever manage without this thing!?”
Now it will set you back more than a Tonka truck. But I’d argue that the sticker price of $2,482 is a small price to pay in order to have the coolest vehicle in the neighborhood! Just try not to think yet about the thousands and thousands of dollars in fees, import charges, shipping, and other expenses of actually receiving one of these in the West. Instead, think of the fun hayrides you could give the neighborhood kids, at least assuming their parents signed the extensive liability waiver that this thing would probably require.
Speaking of liability though, before any of you get the bright idea to try one of these, please be warned that I’m telling you that’s a bad idea. As I always try to remind my readers during these fun tongue-in-cheek Alibaba articles: don’t actually try to buy one of these things. Seriously. These wild-looking Chinese EVs may be fun to look at, but this is just a lighthearted weekend column where I dig through Alibaba’s bizarre and fascinating collection of electric vehicles. While I’ve had a few successful (and fun) purchases from the site, I’ve also been burned more than once – so it’s definitely not for the faint of heart or anyone on a tight budget.
That’s not to say some brave (or stubborn) readers haven’t taken the plunge anyway, ignoring my caution and venturing into the unknown. But please don’t be the one who gambles and ends up with empty hands and a lighter wallet. Consider this your official heads-up – I’ve warned you!
For now, let’s enjoy how awesome it is that something like this octo-dumper exists, and leave it at that. Until next time, and until the next weird Alibaba EV, this is Micah signing off.
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