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Most people who drink alcohol will be familiar with the short-term effects of alcohol intoxication. The mild state of euphoria and feelings of relaxation are among the main reasons why humans have been producing and drinking alcohol for thousands of years, according to “Alcohol: Science, Policy and Public Health” (Oxford University Press, 2013). 

Similarly, most people are aware that excessive and chronic drinking can severely impact their physical and mental health. But the exact effects will depend on the amount of alcohol consumed and how frequently someone drinks it.

In the U.S., moderate drinking is limited to two drinks per day for men and one drink per day for women, according to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (opens in new tab) (CDC). One drink refers to an equivalent of 0.6 ounce (14 grams) of pure alcohol. That amount can be found in a bottle of beer (5% alcohol content), a small glass of wine (12% alcohol content) or a shot of distilled spirits (40% alcohol content).      

According to the CDC (opens in new tab) , heavy drinking is defined as consuming eight or more drinks per week for women, and 15 or more drinks per week for a man. This is different to binge drinking, which the CDC defines as consuming five or more drinks on one occasion for men or four or more drinks on one occasion for women.What are the short-term effects of alcohol?

Short-term effects of alcohol consumption often include feelings of mild euphoria and a state of relaxation. This state is caused by temporary changes to brain signaling, said Sarah Boss (opens in new tab) , a psychiatrist in Spain and clinical director of The Balance Luxury Rehab, who specializes in addiction. 

“Alcohol can interfere with neurotransmitters, which are chemicals that help relay messages between neurons in the brain, leading to changes in mood, behavior and thinking,” she told Live Science.

According to the American Addiction Centers (opens in new tab) , short-term effects of moderate alcohol consumption may range from skin flushing and trouble concentrating to more severe symptoms, such as vomiting and passing out. Other effects of short-term alcohol use include loss of coordination, mood swings, raised blood pressure, dull vision and lowered inhibitions. 

(Image credit: Getty Images)

Then comes the effects of alcohol withdrawal, commonly referred to as a hangover. Hangover symptoms usually begin within several hours of a person’s last drink and they tend to vary from person to person. These can include headaches, exhaustion, nausea and dehydration, said Dr. Kathryn Basford (opens in new tab) , a medical doctor at ZAVA online doctor service in England. 

“Alcohol inhibits the body’s production of vasopressin, a hormone which tells the body to retain water in the kidneys,” Basford (opens in new tab) told Live Science. “Without this, water goes directly to the bladder and leaves the body dehydrated. The headache is the brain’s reaction to this loss of fluid, while the nausea and lack of energy is the body’s response to low blood sugar levels and the loss of the minerals and electrolytes which help the body to function properly.”

The more a person drinks, Basford said, the more likely it is that they are going to feel these effects, and the longer a person might take to recover. Related: What is ‘hangxiety’ and why do some people experience it? 

Hangover symptoms tend to pass within 24 hours of a person’s last drink and do not tend to produce lasting health problems.What are the long-term effects of alcohol consumption?

Long-term alcohol consumption can affect many aspects of physical and mental health. According to the American Addiction Centers (opens in new tab) , the main areas affected include the brain, digestive system, cardiovascular system and musculoskeletal system.    

(Image credit: Getty Images) Brain

According to Boss, there’s a lot of  scientific evidence to show that alcohol impacts the proper functioning of the brain, namely by affecting levels of neurotransmitters — chemical messengers in the brain. ALCOHOL GUIDANCE AND SUPPORT—Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration

—Secular Organizations for Sobriety 

—Moderation Management 

“You may notice alcohol can cause wild mood swings,” she said. “This is because alcohol interacts with GABA, a neurotransmitter that helps to regulate mood and anxiety.” 

Alcohol also works as a central nervous system depressant, Boss said, which means it slows down the communication between the brain and the body. This can lead to impaired coordination, slurred speech, slowed reflexes and blackouts. Heavy drinking can also lead to other problems such as sleep disturbances.

Long-term alcohol use may even lead to changes in the brain’s structure. “Heavy drinking can kill brain cells,” Boss said. “This damage can lead to problems with memory, learning and coordination, as well as increases in anxiety [disorder] and depression.” 

Many of these changes in the brain happen on a molecular level. According to a 2021 review published in the journal Trends in Neurosciences (opens in new tab) , excessive drinking can disrupt gene expression in neurons, a process in which brain cells develop and connect with each other. These adaptations may be a key factor for developing alcohol use disorder, the researchers said.Heart 

Long-term alcohol use will also have an impact on cardiovascular health. According to a 2016 review published in the Journal of the American College of Cardiology (opens in new tab) , even modest amounts of alcohol may predispose someone to atrial fibrillation — a condition that causes an irregular heartbeat, dizziness and shortness of breath. 

How drinking affects heart health may depend on the amount of alcohol consumed, though the evidence is far from conclusive. Some studies indicate that low-to-moderate drinking may actually lower your risk of heart disease and stroke, according to a 2021 review published in the journal Nutrients (opens in new tab) . However, this is not well understood. A 2017 review published in the journal Alcohol Research (opens in new tab) suggests that low-to-moderate alcohol consumption may indirectly reduce atherosclerosis — a buildup of fatty plaques in and on the artery walls — and inflammation, as well as mitigate the effects of psychological stress on the cardiovascular system. 

Certain compounds found in alcoholic drinks could also play a role. For example, polyphenols found in red wine may protect against atherosclerosis, hypertension and heart failure, a 2016 review published in the journal Nutrients (opens in new tab) reported. Digestive health 

Excessive drinking can lead to liver damage and alcohol-related liver disease, according to a 2021 review published in the journal Alcohol Research (opens in new tab) . 

Alcohol affects other parts of the digestive system too. A 2014 review in the World Journal of Gastroenterology (opens in new tab) found that consuming more than five drinks a day can damage the pancreas, esophagus, stomach and intestinal tract. 

(Image credit: Getty Images)

Long-term alcohol consumption may also lead to poor gut health. According to a 2021 review published in the International Journal of Molecular Sciences (opens in new tab) , excessive drinking may lead to changes in the gut microbiome,  by reducing diversity of microbes and causing an overgrowth of bacteria that promote inflammation, such as Proteobacteria. These alterations may lead to intestinal inflammation and leaky gut — a condition in which the intestinal walls become porous, enabling toxins and harmful pathogens to enter the bloodstream. 

Caitlin Hall, chief dietitian and head of clinical research at myota (opens in new tab) , said that these changes may be harmful to our general health. “One of the most important functions of the gut microbiome is to ferment dietary fibers and produce anti-inflammatory molecules called short chain fatty acids [SCFAs],” she told Live Science. “SCFAs are essential for our immune health, mental wellbeing and for reversing and preventing chronic diseases including diabetes and cancers. Cutting down on alcohol helps ensure that the microbiome can produce enough of these vital molecules.”  Immunity 

The immune system may also be affected by long-term alcohol use. According to a 2015 review published in the journal Alcohol Research (opens in new tab) , chronic heavy drinking may lead to a significant drop in the number of white blood cells responsible for combating infections and preventing cancers.  

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Home secretary admits illegal immigration numbers still ‘too high’ under Labour – but says Farage can ‘sod off’

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Home secretary admits illegal immigration numbers still 'too high' under Labour - but says Farage can 'sod off'

The home secretary has admitted the UK’s illegal immigrant numbers are “too high” – but said Nigel Farage can “sod off” after he claimed she sounded like a Reform supporter.

Shabana Mahmood, speaking just after announcing a major policy change on migration, said she was “horrified” by the 27% increase of irregular arrivals in the year to June.

Speaking to Sky News’ political editor Beth Rigby, the home secretary said: “I acknowledge the numbers are too high, and they’ve gone up, and I want to bring them down.

“I’m impatient to bring those numbers down.”

She refused to “set arbitrary numbers” on how much she wanted to bring illegal migration down to.

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Beth Rigby: The two big problems with Labour’s asylum plan

Earlier on Monday, Ms Mahmood announced a new direction in Labour’s plan to crack down on asylum seekers.

The “restoring order and control” plan includes:

• The removal of more families with children – either voluntarily through cash incentives up to £3,000, or by force;
• Quadrupling the time successful asylum seekers must wait to claim permanent residency in the UK, from five years to 20;
• Removing the legal obligation to provide financial support to asylum seekers, so those with the right to work but choose not to will receive no support;
• Setting up a new appeals body to significantly speed up the time it takes to decide whether to refuse an asylum application;
• Reforming how the European Convention on Human Rights (ECHR) is interpreted in immigration cases;
• Banning visas for countries refusing to accept deportees;
• And the establishment of new safe and legal refugee routes.

Read more: Everything you need to know about Labour’s plans

Shabana Mahmood has two really big problems

The home secretary wants to make it less attractive for illegal migrants to try to get to the UK by making it much harder to get permanent residence here, by overhauling human rights laws to make it harder for illegal migrants to stay, and by suspending UK visas to some countries who refuse to take back illegal migrants.

That’s the plan, but there are two really big problems.

The first one is the Labour Party.

Labour knows it has to try to win back voters turning to Reform, but also risks a backlash from those with more liberal values who believe Mahmood is abandoning what Labour stands for to them.

That’s the politics. But on the policy, they just have to deliver and so much is at stake.

There’s no doubt Keir Starmer’s Number 10 is in real trouble.

There’s now open chatter about whether he should lead Labour into the next general election and whether his chancellor really is the person to deliver on the economy as she faces into that very difficult budget.

With the government in the doldrums, there is a lot riding on this policy and this politician.

Beth was speaking after her interview with Shabana Mahmood, watch her full analysis in the video above.

Reform UK leader Nigel Farage said the plan was much like something his party would put forward, and said Ms Mahmood sounded like a Reform supporter.

The home secretary responded with her usual frankness, telling Rigby: “Nigel Farage can sod off. I’m not interested in anything he’s got to say.

“He’s making mischief. So I’m not going to let him live forever in my head.”

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Home secretary announces details on asylum reform

You might need our support, says Badenoch

Her plans have also been tentatively welcomed by the Conservatives, with Kemi Badenoch suggesting the home secretary work with her in case of a rebellion by Labour MPs.

The backing of Tory MPs could “come in handy”, Ms Badenoch said.

The government’s attempts to cut the welfare bill earlier this year were thwarted by its own backbenchers, and the proposals announced on Monday have already attracted backlash from some on the left of the Labour Party.

Nadia Whittome MP called Ms Mahmood’s plans “dystopian” and “shameful”, while Richard Burgon MP said she should change course now rather than be forced into a U-turn later.

Read more:
How the UK and Denmark’s immigration policies compare

Nigel Farage said the home secretary was sounding like a Reform supporter
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Nigel Farage said the home secretary was sounding like a Reform supporter

Mahmood’s warning to Labour MPs

But Ms Mahmood has warned her colleagues that disrupting her bid to reform the asylum system – thus hoping to bring down the number of small boat crossings – risks “dark forces” coming to prominence.

Speaking in the House of Commons on Monday evening, Ms Mahmood said: “If we fail to deal with this crisis, we will draw more people down a path that starts with anger and ends in hatred.”

She later told Beth Rigby that Reform wanted to “rip up” indefinite leave to remain altogether, which she called “immoral” and “deeply shameful”.

The home secretary, who is a practising Muslim, was born in Birmingham to her Pakistani parents.

Earlier, in the House of Commons, she said she sees the division that migration and the asylum system are creating across the country. She told MPs she regularly endures racial slurs.

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New campaign backs introduction of Graduated Driving Licences

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New campaign backs introduction of Graduated Driving Licences

MPs and bereaved families have launched a new campaign urging the government to re-think its position on introducing Graduated Driving Licences.

The event, in Parliament, came at the start of Road Safety Week and ahead of the government’s highly anticipated new road safety strategy, the first in a decade, which could be published next month.

Kim Leadbeater MP told the gathering that the idea for tougher rules for new drivers “transcends party politics” and could leave to “saving people’s lives”.

Five young adults died in a crash in Ireland on Saturday night. Pic: PA
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Five young adults died in a crash in Ireland on Saturday night. Pic: PA

Organisations, including fire services, police and crime commissioners, motoring organisations as well as road safety charities, are behind a new website, “Protect Young Drivers: Time for Change”, which documents the case for introducing stronger measures.

Graduated Driving Licences (GDLs) is a system designed to give new drivers a staggered approach to gaining full privileges on the road, such as driving at night or with a full car of passengers.

The system has been successful in countries including Canada and Australia at reducing the number of young people killed or seriously injured.

“I feel as a bereaved parent we are very easily dismissed”

More on Roads

Last year 22% of fatalities on Britain’s roads involved a young person behind the wheel.

Data released by the Department for Transport also shows that male drivers aged 17-24 are four times more likely to be killed or seriously injured than all drivers aged over 25.

At the start of the launch a one minute silence was held to remember victims of road traffic accidents – including five young adults who died in a crash in Ireland on Saturday night.

Chris Taylor, who lost his 18-year-old daughter Rebecca in a road traffic collision in 2008, said the grief doesn’t go away.

“I feel as a bereaved parent we are very easily dismissed,” he said. “We’ve got an opportunity. Together we are a movement that can create real change.”

The Department for Transport has previously told Sky News it is not considering GDLs.

“Every death on our roads is a tragedy and our thoughts are with everyone who has lost a loved one in this way,” said a spokesperson.

“Whilst we are not considering Graduated Driving Licences, we absolutely recognise that young people are disproportionately victims of tragic incidents on our roads and continue to tackle this through our THINK! campaign.

“We are considering other measures to address this problem and protect young drivers, as part of our upcoming strategy for road safety – the first in over a decade.”

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Labour MPs fear wipe out at next local election – as chancellor’s career is ‘toast’

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Labour MPs fear wipe out at next local election - as chancellor's career is 'toast'

Many Labour MPs have been left shellshocked after the chaotic political self-sabotage of the past week.

Bafflement, anger, disappointment, and sheer frustration are all on relatively open display at the circular firing squad which seems to have surrounded the prime minister.

The botched effort to flush out backroom plotters and force Wes Streeting to declare his loyalty ahead of the budget has instead led even previously loyal Starmerites to predict the PM could be forced out of office before the local elections in May.

“We have so many councillors coming up for election across the country,” one says, “and at the moment it looks like they’re going to be wiped out. That’s our base – we just can’t afford to lose them. I like Keir [Starmer] but there’s only a limited window left to turn things around. There’s a real question of urgency.”

Another criticised a “boys club” at No 10 who they claimed have “undermined” the prime minister and “forgotten they’re meant to be serving the British people.”

There’s clearly widespread muttering about what to do next – and even a degree of enviousness at the lack of a regicidal 1922 committee mechanism, as enjoyed by the Tories.

“Leadership speculation is destabilising,” one said. “But there’s really no obvious strategy. Andy Burnham isn’t even an MP. You’d need a stalking horse candidate and we don’t have one. There’s no 1922. It’s very messy.”

More on Labour

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Starmer’s faithfuls are ‘losing faith’

Others are gunning for the chancellor after months of careful pitch-rolling for manifesto-breaching tax rises in the budget were ripped up overnight.

“Her career is toast,” one told me. “Rachel has just lost all credibility. She screwed up on the manifesto. She screwed up on the last two fiscal events, costing the party huge amounts of support and leaving the economy stagnating.

“Having now walked everyone up the mountain of tax rises and made us vote to support them on the opposition day debate two days ago, she’s now worried her job is at risk and has bottled it.

“Talk to any major business or investor and they are holding off investing in the UK until it is clear what the UK’s tax policy is going to be, putting us in a situation where the chancellor is going to have to go through this all over again in six months – which just means no real economic growth for another six months.”

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Why is the economy flatlining?

Read more:
Starmer and Reeves ditch plans to raise income tax
Former chancellor Osborne is shock contender to head HSBC

After less than 18 months in office, the government is stuck in a political morass largely of its own making.

Treasury sources have belatedly argued that the chancellor’s pre-budget change of heart on income tax is down to better-than-expected economic forecasts from the Office for Budget Responsibility.

That should be a cause of celebration. The question is whether she and the PM are now too damaged to make that case to the country – and rescue their benighted prospects.

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